The type of stratification characterizes an open society. Systems of social stratification

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TYPES OF STRATIFICATION SYSTEMS.

There are many stratification criteria by which any society can be divided.

There are nine types of stratification systems,

which can be used to describe any social organism, namely:

1. Physico-genetic

2. Slave

3. Cast

4. Class

5. Etacratic

6. Socio-professional

7. Classroom

8. Cultural and symbolic

9. Cultural-normative

1. Physical-genetic stratification system

It is based on the differentiation of social groups according to "natural", socio-demographic characteristics. Here, the attitude towards a person or group is determined by gender, age and the presence of certain physical qualities - strength, beauty, dexterity.

Accordingly, the weaker, those with physical disabilities are considered defective and occupy a humbled social position. Inequality is affirmed in this case the existence of a threat of physical violence or its actual use, and then is fixed in customs and rituals.

2. Slave stratification system

This system is also based on direct violence. But inequality here is determined not by physical, but by military-legal coercion. Social groups differ in the presence or absence of civil rights and property rights. Certain social groups are completely deprived of these rights and, moreover, along with things, are turned into an object of private property. Moreover, this position is most often inherited and thus fixed in generations.

Examples of slaveholding systems are quite diverse. This is ancient slavery, where the number of slaves sometimes exceeded the number of free citizens, and servility in Russia during the Russkaya Pravda, this is plantation slavery in the south of the North American United States until civil war 1861-1865

3. Caste stratification system

It is based on ethnic differences, which, in turn, are reinforced by the religious order and religious rituals. Each caste is a closed, as far as possible, endogamous group, which is assigned a strictly defined place in the social hierarchy. This place appears as a result of the isolation of the special functions of each caste in the system of division of labor. There is a clear list of occupations that members of this caste can engage in: priestly, military, agricultural. Since position in the caste system is hereditary, opportunities social mobility are extremely limited here. And the stronger caste is expressed, the more closed this society turns out to be.

4. Class stratification system

In this system, groups are distinguished legal rights which, in turn, are rigidly connected with their duties and are directly dependent on these duties. Moreover, the latter imply obligations to the state, enshrined in law. Some classes are obliged to carry out military or bureaucratic service, others - "tax" in the form of taxes or labor duties.

5. Etacratic stratification system

In it, differentiation between groups occurs, first of all, according to their position in the power-state hierarchies (political, military, economic), according to the possibilities of mobilizing and distributing resources, as well as according to the privileges that these groups are able to derive from their positions of power. The degree of material well-being, the style of life of social groups, as well as the prestige they feel, are here connected with the formal ranks that these groups occupy in the respective power hierarchies. All other differences - demographic and religious-ethnic, economic and cultural - play a secondary role.

The etacratic system is revealed with all the greater force, the more authoritarian character the government assumes.

6. Socio-professional stratification system

Here the groups are divided according to the content and conditions of their work. They play a special role qualification requirements required for a particular professional role - the possession of relevant experience, skills and abilities. Approval and maintenance of hierarchical orders in this system is carried out with the help of certificates (diplomas, grades, licenses, patents), fixing the level of qualification and ability to perform certain types of activities. The validity of qualification certificates is supported by the power of the state or some other sufficiently powerful corporation (professional workshop). Moreover, these certificates are most often not inherited, although there are exceptions in history.

The socio-professional division is one of the basic stratification systems, various examples of which can be found in any society with any developed division of labor.

This is a system of craft shops medieval city and the rank grid and modern state industry, the system of certificates and diplomas of education received, the system of scientific degrees and titles that open the way to more prestigious jobs.

7. Class stratification system

The class approach is often opposed to the stratification approach.

But for us, class division is only a particular case of social stratification. Of the many interpretations of the concept of “class”, we will also focus on the more traditional socio-economic one in this case. In this interpretation, classes represent social groups of politically and legally free citizens. Differences between groups are primarily in the nature and extent of ownership of the means of production and the product produced, as well as in the level of income received and personal material well-being.

Unlike many previous types, belonging to classes - bourgeois, proletarians, independent farmers, etc. - is not regulated by the highest authorities, is not established by law and is not inherited (property and capital are transferred, but not the status itself). In its purest form, the class system does not contain any internal formal partitions at all (economic prosperity automatically transfers you to a higher group).

Economically egalitarian communities, where class differentiation is completely absent, are a rather rare and unstable phenomenon.

But throughout most of human history, class divisions still bear a subordinate character. They come to the fore, perhaps, only in bourgeois Western societies. And the class system reaches its greatest heights in the liberal-spirited United States of America.

8. Cultural-symbolic stratification system.

Differentiation arises here from differences in access to socially significant information, unequal opportunities to filter and interpret this information, and the ability to be a bearer of sacred knowledge (mystical or scientific). In ancient times, this role was assigned to priests, magicians and shamans, in the Middle Ages - to church ministers, who make up the bulk of the literate population, interpreters of sacred texts, in modern times - to scientists, technocrats and party ideologists.

Claims for communion with divine forces, for the possession of scientific truth, for the expression of the state interest have existed always and everywhere. And a higher position in this respect is occupied by those who have best opportunities manipulating the consciousness and actions of other members of society, who can prove their rights to true understanding better than others, owns the best symbolic capital.

Simplifying the picture somewhat, we can say that pre-industrial societies are more characterized by theocratic manipulation; for industrial - partocratic; and for post-industrial - technocratic.

9. Cultural-normative stratification system.

Separation of the elite, differentiation of all middle and lower strata.

In the peasant community, where formally everyone is equal, there are "serviceable owners" who live "according to custom", "according to conscience", and loafers, renegades, "tumbleweeds".

There is its own normative culture, its own patterns of behavior and its own "aristocracy" at the very "bottom", inside the criminal world. The emergence of countercultures and so-called anti-social behavior, by the way, is also largely a product of moral regulation and ideological control carried out in this community.

Conclusion.

The higher groups in all stratification systems strive to consolidate their position, to make it not only monopoly, but also hereditary. IN class system such inheritance is ensured by the principle of majorat (transfer of the main property to the eldest heir), characteristic, say, of ancient India, Western Europe of the 11th-13th centuries, or Russia until 1917 (the rest of the relatives in this case actually go down the class ladder).

IN thiscratic system, an official does not formally have the right to transfer his chair and powers to his own children, but he is able, through patronage, to provide them with an equally enviable place in an institution of a similar rank.

The situation in socio-professional , cultural and symbolic And cultural normative systems often transmitted in reality through education and upbringing, the transfer of experience and secrets of skill, the sanctioning of certain codes of conduct (professional dynasties are not the only one, but a prime example).

As for physical genetic system , then it stands somewhat apart, because inheritance occurs here often, but not as a result of some social mechanisms but purely biologically.

Distinguish open And closed stratification systems. A social structure whose members can change their status relatively easily is called an open system of stratification. A structure whose members can change their status with great difficulty is called a closed stratification system.

In open systems of stratification, each member of society can change his status, rise or fall on the social ladder based on his own efforts and abilities. Modern societies, experiencing the need for qualified and competent specialists capable of managing complex social, political and economic processes, provide a fairly free movement of individuals in the stratification system.

Open class stratification does not know the formal restrictions on the transition from one stratum to another, the prohibition of mixed marriages, the prohibition of practicing a particular profession, etc. With the development of modern society, social mobility is growing, i.e. the transition from one stratum to another is activated.

Closed stratification implies very rigid boundaries of strata, prohibitions on moving from one stratum to another. The caste system is not typical for modern society.

An example of a closed system of stratification is the caste organization of India (it functioned until 1900). Traditionally, Hindu society was divided into castes, and people inherited social status at birth from their parents and could not change it during their lifetime. In India, there were thousands of castes, but they were all grouped into four main ones: the Brahmins, or caste of priests, numbering about 3% of the population; kshatriyas (descendants of warriors) and vaishyas (merchants), who together made up about 7% of Indians; Shudra, peasants and artisans - about 70% of the population, the remaining 20% - Harijans, or untouchables, who were traditionally cleaners, scavengers, tanners and swineherds.

Members of the higher castes despised, humiliated and oppressed members of the lower castes. Strict rules representatives of the higher and lower castes were not allowed to communicate, because it was believed that this spiritually defiles members of a higher caste.

Historical types of social stratification:

Slavery

An essential feature of slavery is the possession of some people by others. Both the ancient Romans and the ancient Africans had slaves. IN Ancient Greece slaves were engaged physical labor, thanks to which free citizens had the opportunity to express themselves in politics and the arts. The least typical slavery was for nomadic peoples, especially hunters and gatherers.

Three causes of slavery are usually cited:

1. a debt obligation, when a person who was unable to pay his debts fell into slavery to his creditor.

2. violation of laws, when the execution of a murderer or a robber was replaced by slavery, i.e. the culprit was handed over to the affected family as compensation for the grief or damage caused.

3. war, raids, conquest, when one group of people conquered another and the winners used some of the captives as slaves.

General characteristics of slavery. Although slaveholding practices varied in different regions and in different eras, but regardless of whether slavery was the result of unpaid debt, punishment, military captivity or racial prejudice; whether it was permanent or temporary; hereditary or not, the slave was still the property of another person, and the system of laws secured the status of a slave. Slavery served as the main distinction between people, clearly indicating which person is free (and legally receives certain privileges) and which is a slave (without privileges).

Castes.

In the caste system, status is determined by birth and is lifelong; to use sociological terms: the basis of the caste system is prescribed status. The achieved status is not able to change the place of the individual in this system. People who are born into a low-status group will always have this status, no matter what they personally manage to achieve in life.

Societies that are characterized by this form of stratification strive for a clear preservation of the boundaries between castes, therefore endogamy is practiced here - marriages within their own group - and there is a ban on intergroup marriages. To prevent inter-caste contact, such societies develop complex rules regarding ritual purity, according to which it is considered that communication with members of the lower castes defiles the higher caste.

Indian society is the most striking example of the caste system. Based not on racial, but on religious principles, this system lasted for almost three millennia. The four main Indian castes, or Varnas, are subdivided into thousands of specialized sub-castes (jatis), with representatives of each caste and each jati practicing some particular craft.

Clans.

The clan system is typical of agrarian societies. In such a system, each individual is connected to a vast social network relatives - clan. The clan is something like a very extended family and has similar features: if the clan has a high status, the individual belonging to this clan has the same status; all funds belonging to the clan, whether meager or rich, belong equally to each member of the clan; loyalty to the clan is a lifelong obligation of each of its members.

Clans are also reminiscent of castes: belonging to a clan is determined by birth and is lifelong. However, unlike castes, marriages between different clans are quite allowed; they can even be used to create and strengthen alliances between clans, since the obligations that marriage imposes on spouses' relatives can unite members of two clans.

Processes of industrialization and urbanization turn clans into more fluid groups, eventually replacing clans with social classes.

Classes.

The systems of stratification based on slavery, castes and clans are closed. The boundaries separating people are so clear and rigid that they leave no room for people to move from one group to another, with the exception of marriages between members of different clans. The class system is much more open because it is based primarily on money or material possessions. Class membership is also determined at birth - the individual receives the status of his parents, however social class individual during his life can change depending on what he managed (or failed) to achieve in life. In addition, there are no laws that determine the occupation or profession of an individual depending on birth or prohibit marriage with members of other social classes.

Consequently, the main characteristic of this system of social stratification is the relative flexibility of its boundaries. The class system leaves room for social mobility, i.e. to move up or down the social ladder. Having the potential to improve one's social position, or class, is one of the main driving forces encouraging people to study well and work hard. Certainly, marital status, inherited by a person from birth, is capable of determining extremely unfavorable conditions that will not leave him a chance to rise too high in life, and provide the child with such privileges that it will be practically impossible for him to “roll down” the class ladder.

Gender inequality and social stratification.

In any society, gender is the basis of social stratification. In no society is gender the only principle on which social stratification is based, but nevertheless it is inherent in any system of social stratification - whether it be slavery, castes, clans or classes. By gender, members of any society are categorized and receive unequal access to the benefits that their society has to offer. It seems obvious that such a division is always carried out in favor of men.

20) Social stratification: criteria for belonging to a stratum and basic stratification models

Social stratification is a central theme in sociology.

Stratification - stratification, stratification of groups that have different access to social benefits due to their position in the social hierarchy.

It describes social inequality in society, the division of social strata by income level and lifestyle, by the presence or absence of privileges. In primitive society, inequality was insignificant, so stratification was almost absent there. In complex societies, inequality is very strong, it divided people by income, level of education, power.

Strata - translated "layer, layer." The term "stratification" was borrowed from geology, where it refers to the vertical arrangement of the Earth's layers. Sociology has likened the structure of society to the structure of the Earth and placed the social strata (strata) also vertically. But the first ideas about social stratification are found in Plato (distinguishes three classes: philosophers, guards, farmers and artisans) and Aristotle (also three classes: “very wealthy”, “extremely poor”, “middle class”) Dobrenkov V.I., Kravchenko A.I. Sociology - M.: Infra-M, 2001 - p.265. Finally, the ideas of the theory of social stratification took shape at the end of the 18th century thanks to the emergence of the method of sociological analysis.

Social stratum - a layer, people with a common status sign of their position, who feel their connectedness. This horizontal division is identified by cultural and psychological assessments that are realized in behavior and consciousness.

Layer features - economic situation, the type and nature of labor, the scope of power, prestige, authority, influence, location, consumption of vital and cultural goods, family ties, social circle. They study: mutual influence of elements, self-identification and perception of the group by others.

Social class - a large social stratum distinguished from others by income, education, power and prestige; large group people with the same socio-economic status in the system of social stratification.

According to Marxism, slave, feudal and capitalist societies are divided into several classes, including two antagonistic classes (exploiters and exploited): at first they were slave owners and slaves; after - feudal lords and peasants; finally, in modern society, it is the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The third class are, as a rule, artisans, small traders, free peasants, that is, those who have own funds production, works exclusively for himself, but at the same time does not use any other labor force, with the exception of his own. Each social class is a system of behavior, a set of values and norms, a lifestyle. Despite the influence of the dominant culture, each of the social classes cultivates its own values, behaviors and ideals.

1. According to Marx - the possession of private property.

2. According to Weber:

Attitude to property and income level,

Relation to status groups

Possession of political power or closeness to political circles.

3. According to Sorokin, the main stratifications are: -economic, -political, -professional

Today, social stratification is hierarchical, complex and multifaceted.

The basis of social stratification is social differentiation - the division of people into groups that are correlated with each other both horizontally and vertically. The most common is the social stratification of society based on the following criteria:

1) income - the amount of money that a family or a certain individual received for a certain period of time;
2) wealth - movable and immovable property, as well as the presence of accumulated income in the form of monetary savings;
3) power - the ability and ability to control other people;
4) prestige - the degree of respect in society for a particular profession.

The stories are known various systems social stratification.

IN open systems individuals simply need to change their social status. The openness of the system means the possibility for any member of society to rise (fall) along the social ladder in accordance with his abilities and efforts. In such systems, the status achieved means no less than the status assigned to a person from birth. In modern society, any individual, regardless of gender and origin, can, at the cost of more or less effort, significantly increase their initial status, for example, starting from zero, becoming the president of the country.

Closed systems stratifications, on the other hand, presuppose the unconditional primacy of assigned status. Here it is almost impossible for an individual to change the status received by virtue of descent. Such systems are characteristic of traditional societies, especially in the past. For example, the caste system that operated in India until 1950 prescribed rigid boundaries between four castes, the belonging of individuals to which was determined by origin. At the same time, the members of each caste were prescribed a strictly defined occupation, their own rituals, food system, rules for dealing with each other and with a woman, and a way of life. The veneration of representatives of the higher castes and contempt for the lower castes was enshrined in religious institutions and traditions. There were cases of transition from caste to caste, but as single exceptions to the rules.

Four main systems of social stratification are known: slavery, castes, estates and classes.

Slavery characterized by the possession of some people by others. Slavery was most prevalent in agrarian societies, and slavery was least common among nomadic peoples, especially hunter-gatherers.

Conditions of slavery and slaveholding varied significantly in different regions of the world. In ancient Greece, slaves were engaged in physical labor, thanks to which free citizens had the opportunity to express themselves in politics and the arts. In some countries, slavery was a temporary condition of a person: having worked for his master for the allotted time, the slave became free and had the right to return to his homeland. The Israelites freed their slaves in the year of jubilee - every 50 years. IN Ancient Rome slaves, as a rule, had the opportunity to buy freedom; in order to collect the amount necessary for the ransom, they entered into a deal with the owner and sold their services to other people (this is exactly what some educated Greeks who fell into slavery to the Romans did). There are cases in history when a wealthy slave began to lend money to his master, and in the end the master fell into slavery to his former slave. In many cases, slavery was for life; in particular, criminals sentenced to hard labor were turned into slaves and worked on Roman galleys as rowers until their death.

The status of a slave was not always inherited. In ancient Mexico, the children of slaves were always free people. But in most countries the children of slaves automatically became slaves too. In some cases, the child of a slave who served all his life in a rich family was adopted by this family, he received the surname of his masters and could become one of the heirs along with the other children of the masters.

Castes. In the caste system, status is determined by birth and is lifelong; in other words, the basis of the caste system is prescribed status. The achieved status is not able to change the place of the individual in this system. Those who are born into a low-status group will always have that status, no matter what they personally manage to achieve in life.

Societies that are characterized by this form of stratification strive to clearly preserve the boundaries between castes, therefore endogamy (marriages within their own group) is practiced here and intergroup marriages are prohibited, complex rules have been developed according to which communication with representatives of the lower castes defiles the higher caste.

estate system was most widespread in feudal Europe and some traditional Asian societies, such as Japan. Its main characteristic is the presence of several (usually three) stable social strata to which individuals belong by origin and the transition between which is very difficult, although in exceptional cases it is possible. The basis of the estate system was legal organization society, which provided for the inheritance of titles and statuses, so marriages were usually concluded within the same class. The fundamental difference between the estates was not so much in economic well-being, but in access to political and social power and socially significant knowledge. Each estate had a monopoly on certain types of occupations and professions. The class system is a closed system, although occasionally an individual change of status was allowed: as a result of inter-class marriages, at the behest of a monarch or feudal lord - as a reward for special merits, when tonsured into monasticism or received the rank of clergyman.

Cash system far more open than systems of stratification based on slavery, caste, and class, where the boundaries separating people are so clear and rigid that they leave no way for people to move from one group to another, except for marriages between members of different clans. The class system is based primarily on money or material possessions. Although class membership is also determined at birth - the individual receives the status of his parents, however, the social class of the individual during his life can change depending on what he managed (or failed) to achieve in life. In addition, there are no laws that determine the occupation or profession of an individual depending on birth or prohibit marriage with members of other social classes. Consequently, this system of social stratification is characterized by the relative flexibility of its boundaries. The class system leaves room for social mobility, i.e. to move up (down) the social ladder. Having the potential to advance social standing, or class, is one of the main driving forces that motivate people to study well and work hard. Of course, marital status, inherited by a person from birth, may determine extremely disadvantageous conditions that will not leave him a chance to rise too high in life, or provide him with such privileges that it will be almost impossible for him to “slide down” the class ladder.

The nature of social stratification, the methods of its determination and reproduction in their unity form what sociologists call stratification system. In historical terms, there are four main types of stratification systems: slavery, castes, estates and classes. The first three characterize closed societies, and the fourth type is open society. In this context, a society is considered closed where social movements from one stratum to another are either completely prohibited or significantly limited. An open society is a society where transitions from the lower strata to the higher strata are officially not limited in any way (6 . 7).

1. Slavery - a form of the most rigid fixing of people in the lower strata. This is the only form in history social relations when one person acts as the property of another, deprived of all rights and freedoms.
2. Caste system - a stratification system that implies a life-long assignment of a person to a certain stratum on an ethnic-religious or economic basis. The caste is a closed group, which was assigned to the system a certain place in the social hierarchy. This place was determined by the special function of each caste in the system of division of labor. In India, where the caste system was most widespread, there was a detailed regulation of the types of activities for each caste. Since belonging to the caste system was inherited, the possibilities of social mobility were limited here.
3. estate system - stratification system, which implies the legal assignment of a person to one or another stratum. The rights and obligations of each class were determined by law and consecrated by religion. Membership in a class was mainly inherited, but in the exception saw it could be acquired for money or bestowed by power. In general, the estate system was characterized by a branched hierarchy, which was expressed in the inequality of social status and the presence of numerous privileges.

The class organization of European feudal society provided for the division into two upper classes (nobility and clergy) and an unprivileged third estate (merchants, artisans, peasants). Since inter-class barriers were quite rigid, social mobility existed mainly within the estates, which included many ranks, ranks, professions, strata, etc. However, unlike the caste system, inter-class marriages and individual transitions from one stratum to another were sometimes allowed.

4. class system - a stratification system of an open type, which does not imply a legal or any other way of securing an individual for a particular stratum. Unlike previous closed-type stratification systems, membership in classes is not regulated by the authorities, is not established by law and is not inherited. It is determined primarily by the place in the system social production, ownership of property, as well as the level of income received.

The class system is characteristic of the modern industrial society where I exist! opportunities for free movement from one stratum to another. Thus, the accumulation of property and wealth, successful entrepreneurial activity allow you to automatically take a higher social position.

The allocation of slave, caste, estate and class stratification systems is a generally recognized, but not the only classification. It is supplemented by a description of such types of stratification systems, a combination of which is found in any society. Among them are the following:

physical-genetic stratification system, which is based on the ranking of people according to natural characteristics: gender, age, the presence of certain physical qualities - strength, dexterity, beauty, etc.;
etacratic stratification system, in which differentiation between groups is carried out according to their position in the power-state hierarchies (political, military, administrative and economic), according to the possibilities for mobilizing and distributing resources, as well as according to the privileges that these groups have depending on their rank in power structures;
socio-professional stratification system, in accordance with which groups are divided according to the content and working conditions; ranking here is carried out with the help of certificates (diplomas, grades, licenses, patents, etc.), fixing the level of qualification and ability to perform certain types of activities (digit grid in the public sector of industry, the system of certificates and diplomas of education received, the system of awarding scientific degrees and titles, etc.);
cultural and symbolic stratification system, arising from differences in access to socially significant information.

unequal opportunities to select, store and interpret this information (theocratic manipulation of information is typical for pre-industrial societies, partocratic for industrial ones, and technocratic for post-industrial ones);

cultural and normative stratification system, in which differentiation is built on differences in respect and prestige arising from the comparison of existing norms and lifestyles inherent in certain social groups (attitude towards physical and mental labor, consumer standards, tastes, communication methods, professional terminology, local dialect, - all this can serve as the basis for ranking social groups);
socio-territorial stratification system, formed due to the unequal distribution of resources between regions, differences in access to jobs, housing, quality goods and services, educational and cultural institutions, etc.

In reality, all these stratification systems are closely intertwined and complement each other. Thus, the socio-professional hierarchy in the form of an officially fixed division of labor not only performs important independent functions for maintaining the life of society, but also has a significant impact on the structure of any stratification system. Therefore, the study of the stratification of modern society cannot be reduced to the analysis of any one type of stratification system.

History knows various systems of social stratification.

IN open systems individuals simply need to change their social status. The openness of the system means the possibility for any member of society to rise (fall) along the social ladder in accordance with his abilities and efforts. In such systems, the status achieved means no less than the status assigned to a person from birth. In modern society, any individual, regardless of gender and origin, can, at the cost of more or less effort, significantly increase their initial status, for example, starting from zero, becoming the president of the country.

Closed systems stratifications, on the other hand, presuppose the unconditional primacy of assigned status. Here it is almost impossible for an individual to change the status received by virtue of descent. Such systems are characteristic of traditional societies, especially in the past. For example, the caste system that operated in India until 1950 prescribed rigid boundaries between four castes, the belonging of individuals to which was determined by origin. At the same time, the members of each caste were prescribed a strictly defined occupation, their own rituals, food system, rules for dealing with each other and with a woman, and a way of life. The veneration of representatives of the higher castes and contempt for the lower castes was enshrined in religious institutions and traditions. There were cases of transition from caste to caste, but as single exceptions to the rules.

known four main systems of social stratification: slavery, castes, estates and classes.

Slavery characterized by the possession of some people by others. Slavery was most prevalent in agrarian societies, and slavery was least common among nomadic peoples, especially hunter-gatherers.

Conditions of slavery and slaveholding varied significantly in different regions of the world. In ancient Greece, slaves were engaged in physical labor, thanks to which free citizens had the opportunity to express themselves in politics and the arts. In some countries, slavery was a temporary condition of a person: having worked for his master for the allotted time, the slave became free and had the right to return to his homeland. The Israelites freed their slaves in the year of jubilee - every 50 years. In ancient Rome, slaves were generally able to buy their freedom; in order to collect the amount necessary for the ransom, they entered into a deal with the owner and sold their services to other people (this is exactly what some educated Greeks who fell into slavery to the Romans did). There are cases in history when a wealthy slave began to lend money to his master, and in the end the master fell into slavery to his former slave. In many cases, slavery was for life; in particular, criminals sentenced to hard labor were turned into slaves and worked on Roman galleys as rowers until their death.

castes most often associated with the culture of the Indian subcontinent. The term "caste" is of Portuguese origin, meaning "kind" and "pure genus". The Indians themselves do not have a term to describe the class system as a whole, various words reveal its various aspects. Among them are the two main ones - varna and jati. Varna includes four categories, ranked by social prestige. Jatis define groups within which caste ranks are organized. The highest varna, the brahmins, represent the highest level of purity, the untouchables the lowest. Brahmins must avoid certain types of contact with the untouchables, and only untouchables are allowed physical contact with animals or with a substance defined as impure. The caste system was initially strongly associated with the Hindu religion. Individuals are convinced that if someone does not remain faithful to the rituals and duties of his caste, then he will face the lowest position in a subsequent incarnation.

The concept of castes has sometimes been applied outside of the Indian context when two or more ethnic groups were segregated and the concept of racial purity dominated (Southern US, South Africa).

In the caste system, status is determined by birth and is lifelong; in other words, the basis of the caste system is prescribed status. The achieved status is not able to change the place of the individual in this system. Those who are born into a low-status group will always have that status, regardless of what they have personally achieved in life.

estate system was most widespread in feudal Europe and some traditional Asian societies, such as Japan. Its main characteristic is the presence of several (usually three) stable social strata to which individuals belong by origin and the transition between which is very difficult, although in exceptional cases it is possible. The basis of the estate system is the legal organization of society, which provided for the inheritance of titles and statuses, so marriages were usually concluded within the same estate. The fundamental difference between the estates was not so much in economic well-being, but in access to political and social power and socially significant knowledge. Each estate had a monopoly on certain types of occupations and professions. The class system is a closed system, although occasionally an individual change of status was allowed: as a result of inter-class marriages, at the behest of a monarch or feudal lord - as a reward for special merits, when tonsured into monasticism or received the rank of clergyman.

Estates were part of European feudalism, but also existed in many other traditional societies. The feudal estates include strata with various duties and rights; some of these distinctions are established by law. In Europe, estates included the aristocracy and the nobility. The clergy constituted a different estate, having a lower status, but with various privileges. The so-called "third estate" included servants, free peasants, merchants and artists. In contrast to castes, inter-class marriages and individual mobility were perceived with tolerance.

Estates tended to develop when there was a traditional aristocracy based on nobility of origin. In feudal systems such as those of medieval Europe, the estates were confined to estates and localized, forming a local rather than a national system of stratification. In more centralized and traditional empires, such as China or Japan, they were organized on a more national basis.

class system far more open than systems of stratification based on slavery, caste, and class, where the boundaries separating people are so clear and rigid that they leave no way for people to move from one group to another, except for marriages between members of different clans. The class system is based primarily on money or material possessions. Although class membership is also determined at birth - the individual receives the status of his parents, however, the social class of the individual during his life can change depending on what he managed (or failed) to achieve in life. In addition, there are no laws that determine the occupation or profession of an individual depending on birth or prohibit marriage with members of other social classes. Consequently, this system of social stratification is characterized by the relative flexibility of its boundaries. The class system leaves room for social mobility, i.e. to move up (down) the social ladder. Having the potential to advance social standing, or class, is one of the main driving forces that motivate people to study well and work hard. Of course, marital status, inherited by a person from birth, may determine extremely disadvantageous conditions that will not leave him a chance to rise too high in life, or provide him with such privileges that it will be almost impossible for him to “slide down” the class ladder.

class systems differ in many respects from slavery, castes and estates. Four points in particular should be noted:

1. Classes are not created on the basis of legal and religious norms; membership in them is not based on hereditary status and customs. Class systems are more fluid than other systems of stratification, and the boundaries between classes are never clearly defined.

2. An individual's belonging to a class must be "achieved" by himself, and not just be "given" from birth, as in other types of stratification systems.

Social mobility - moving up and down in the class structure - is much easier than in other types (in the caste system, individual mobility, the transition from one caste to another is impossible).

3. Classes depend on economic differences between groups of people associated with inequalities in the ownership and control of material resources.

In other types of stratification systems, inequality is expressed primarily at the level of interpersonal relations concerning duties between servant and master, slave and master, representatives of the higher and lower castes. Class systems, on the contrary, carry out mainly connections of an impersonal nature.

3. Social structure and stratification of modern Belarusian society (don't forget to look at the corresponding presentation slides!!!)

The peculiarity of the stratification dynamics in Belarus is predetermined by a number of circumstances, the most important of which is that the Republic of Belarus is an integral part of the Eastern European region. An analysis of the sustainable cultural and historical features of the development of this region will make it possible to determine the specifics social development Belarus itself.

In the scientific literature, there are several points of view regarding the nature of the Eastern European society:

This is a backward Europe, facing the problem of modernization and achieving the European level of development (“catching up development”);

A special cultural and historical type in line with the common European civilization, the main problem is the "return" to Europe;

Slavic societies bear the features and consequences of the "ugly synthesis" of the civilizational foundations of the West and the East and today make the final "civilizational choice";

A special intermediate civilization has developed here, which is a combination of liberal and traditional values;

This is a special, original civilization that solves the problem not of "civilizational choice", but of social transformation - "reassessment of values", renewal of structures and values;

In contrast to the countries of "catching up modernization", two transitional processes were superimposed here - the global process of transition from industrial to post-industrial society and the process of transition to the market, reflecting the tasks of "catching up development".

The last two hypotheses are more popular than the others. Taking into account the specifics of the civilizational conditions of life in Eastern Europe, a number of the most important characteristics of the organization can be distinguished. social life in this region.

First, the civilizational feature of Eastern European societies is the inorganic nature of culture - the presence of mutually opposing value systems. This was manifested in the coexistence of subcultures in it, reflecting not only different ethno-national cultures, but also different historical and cultural types. This refers to the European liberal culture, the conductor of which was the upper strata of Slavic societies, and the traditional one, based on the archaic mechanisms of the collectivist and leveling mass consciousness, the foundations of the patriarchal-authoritarian way of life.

Secondly, the special role of the state in the organization of public life, the dominance of state property, the underdevelopment of the institution of private property.

Thirdly, a peculiar model of regulation of social relations was formed here, in which developed civil structures did not develop, and the state acted as an arbiter in the relationship between social groups. The social structure was based on a rigid social hierarchy with a clear distribution of rights, privileges and duties of social groups, on the determining role of not class, but status and prestige differences.

Fourth, historical features social organization Eastern Slavs had an impact on public consciousness, giving rise to two characteristic attitudes of thinking and behavior. On the one hand, the irrational authority of the authorities, on the other hand, legal nihilism, orientation towards conflict behavior and unauthorized forms of protest.

Fifthly, this is a special position and place of the individual in relation to the state and society as a whole, which manifested itself in the following:

1) the predominance of the state principle over the personal;

2) the primacy of sociality (community, catholicity, collectivism) over individualism;

3) the primacy of spirituality over commercialism, utilitarianism;

4) more contemplative than active, life position, focusing not on personal activity, but on state paternalism.

These retrospective features of social development have shown themselves especially clearly in the formation social structure modern Belarusian society.

The main thing to pay attention to Special attention, is that in modern Belarusian society the network of criteria for stratification dynamics is significantly expanding. Along with economic, political, socio-cultural factors, “shadow” and marginalizing factors acquire a criterion status. If the first of them push individuals who are successful in their respective fields of activity to the upper rungs of the property and social-status ladder, then the second, on the contrary, push people who have not adapted to new socio-economic conditions to the social “bottom”.

Marginal (from the Latin margo - edge) a person who is on the border of various social groups, systems, cultures and is influenced by their conflicting norms, values, etc.

The marginal strata are a stable mass of people who do not participate in the social division of labor, who do not perform social functions and do not have a social status.

Marginality (Late Latin marginalis, located on the edge) is a concept denoting intermediateness, “borderline” of a person’s position between any social groups, which leaves a certain imprint on his psyche. This concept appeared in American sociology in the 1920s. to indicate the situation of non-adaptation of immigrants to new social conditions.

Historical experience suggests that social stratification may have a different internal structure, caused by differences in the intensity and generality of horizontal and vertical mobility, and the latter depend on the type of society. In societies of the so-called "closed" type, social stratification and its dynamic embodiment in social mobility have a pyramidal form. In this type of society, at the top of the stratification hierarchy there is a narrow social stratum (say, the party state nomenklatura in the USSR), and the vast majority of social groups, workers, peasants, intelligentsia and employees, make up the lower, much more extensive floors of the social pyramid.

Societies of the "open" type, or democratic, have a different form of diamond-shaped social stratification. This is due to the sharp increase in the size of the so-called "middle class" in them. IN USA " middle class makes up about 60% of the population.

The middle class is a social group that occupies an intermediate position between the elite and the class of employees in the structure of modern society.

At this stage, the form of social stratification of the Republic of Belarus cannot be definitely attributed to either pyramidal or diamond-shaped. One can only indicate the growing tendency for the stratification model to acquire a diamond-shaped contour. This is largely due to the fact that the process of class formation in the republic has not yet been completed, which is convincingly evidenced by the fact that the "middle class" in our country, according to E. M. Babosov, is 18-20%.

Many researchers believe that the Belarusian middle class is in its infancy. Relatively middle-income strata make up 30% of the population. But only about 10% of Belarusians, according to objective parameters (income, education, prestige of the profession), can be attributed to the middle class, although subjectively more than two-thirds of the population consider themselves to be middle class. According to V. Chernov and S. Nikolyuk, over 50% of the population constitute the so-called middle protoclass, or the "periphery" of the emerging middle class.

In the mid 2000s. Belarusian sociologist EAT. Babosov singled out 7 steps of the hierarchical structure Belarusian society based on social status criteria:

1) at the top of the stratification pyramid is the top layer of the new elite, which includes wealthy entrepreneurs (owners of banks, private large firms etc.), higher officials at the rank of minister and above. This is in fact the new bourgeoisie and the highest state bureaucracy;

2) the upper middle layer - medium and small entrepreneurs, directors, popular artists, actors, television commentators, prominent scientists, owners of private hospitals, dental offices, etc.;

3) the middle middle layer - professors, doctors and lawyers in private practice, heads of departments (services) of large, efficiently operating enterprises, senior officers, etc.;

4) the lower middle stratum - teachers, line (ordinary) engineers, employees of cultural institutions, junior officers, skilled workers, etc.;

5) the lowest layer - low-skilled workers, peasants, employees, non-commissioned officers of the armed forces and law enforcement agencies, etc.;

7) marginal layers - those who have sunk to the social bottom from various social groups, beggars, homeless people, refugees, internally displaced persons, homeless teenagers, etc.

In most cases, the upper levels of the social property hierarchy coincide with the upper levels of social status stratification (rich people, as a rule, belong to the highest social stratum), and the lower ones, the poor and the poor, coincide with the lower social status marginal strata. However, such a coincidence does not always occur, as a result of which the identified seven steps in each of the considered matrices do not fully correlate with the corresponding levels of another matrix, and this further complicates the dynamics of the social structure of modern post-Soviet society, introduces elements of nonlinearity, chaos, and unpredictability into it. .

In addition to the above criteria of stratification dynamics in modern society, sociocultural indicators of the social structure are also important. The most important sociocultural criteria for structural differentiation in modern society include:

1) ethno-national (differentiation into Belarusians, Russians, Ukrainians, Poles, Lithuanians, Jews, Tatars, etc.);

2) worldview (believers, non-believers, vacillating between faith and unbelief, atheists);

3) religious and confessional (Orthodox, Catholics, Protestants, Muslims, etc.);

4) educational (persons with higher, secondary, incomplete secondary education, etc.);

5) spiritual and cultural (advocates of folk, elite, mass culture, subcultures, pseudocultures, countercultures);

6) ideological and political (adherents of the liberal-democratic, communist, right-wing radicalist ideology, etc.);

7) value-oriented (adherents of religious, non-religious morality, moral relativism, immoralism, etc.).

The economic structure of the Belarusian society. According to the research results of I.F. Ivashevich (2010), in the economic structure of the Belarusian society, depending on the level of wealth, the following layers can be distinguished:

- top(provided above average). It includes a small group of people whose incomes allow them to do any, even the most expensive purchases(real estate, cars), relax in prestigious world resorts. The share of this layer is only 10.8% of the population;

- middle(middle-income, 41.8%) - people who have enough money to buy enough expensive durable goods (TV, refrigerator), but they cannot afford to buy a car or an apartment.

- basic(low-income, 33.3%) - those whose income is only enough for food and the purchase of essential goods (clothes, shoes, hygiene products)

- bottom(poor, about 14.1%) - people who do not have enough money even for normal food.

The researcher notes that representatives of the upper and middle strata are mainly concentrated in the capital and major cities(Most often they are young and middle-aged men). The base layer is dominated by women over 45 years old, residents of small towns and urban settlements. The bottom layer is made up mainly of pensioners, residents of small settlements (small towns, villages), as well as unemployed and low-skilled workers.

According to the data given in the statistical compilation “Social Status and Living Standards of the Population”, in 2014, by the level of per capita disposable resources, the population of Belarus was distributed as follows:

Ethno-national structure of the Belarusian society. According to the 2009 census, representatives of more than 130 nations and nationalities lived in Belarus. The majority of the population (83.7%) are representatives of the indigenous Belarusian nationality, both in the country as a whole and in cities and towns. rural areas all areas. Of the non-indigenous people in the republic, the most are Russians (in 2009 there were 8.3%), Poles (3.1%), Ukrainians (1.7%). In addition, representatives of such national groups as Jews, Armenians, Tatars, Gypsies, Azerbaijanis, Lithuanians, and others live in Belarus.

Territorial structure of the Belarusian society. Features of the territorial structure of the Belarusian society on present stage due to the process of urbanization, which has acquired a special intensity since the second half of the twentieth century. So, if in 1970 the rural population still prevailed in the BSSR (57%), then already in 1975 the ratio of the urban and rural population was almost the same (49.9% and 50.1%, respectively), and according to data for 1980, the urban population in Belarus begins to predominate (61%). According to the results of the 2009 census, the urban population of Belarus was already 74.5%, rural, respectively, 25.5%. According to the National Statistical Committee, in 2015 percentage urban and rural population amounted to 77.3% and 22.7% respectively.

Gender and age structure of the Belarusian society. According to the National Statistical Committee, at the beginning of 2015, men accounted for 46.5% of the population of Belarus, women - 53.5%. Accordingly, there are 1150 women for every 1,000 men.

The distribution by age groups is as follows.