Social structure is defined as. What is a social structure: concept, basic elements

1. The concept of social structure and its constituent elements.

The social structure of society is a set of interconnected and interacting social communities and groups, social institutions, social statuses and relations between them. All elements of the social structure interact as a single social organism. In order to more clearly represent the complexity and multidimensionality of the social structure, it can be conditionally divided into two subsystems: 1) the social composition of society; 2) the institutional structure of society.

1. The social composition of society is the recoupment of interactions existing social communities, social al groups and individuals, for a particular society. Every giving social communitythere is a certain place, definedposition in the social structuretour. Some social communitiestake more advantageous positions, others are less advantageouse. In addition, in the socialcommunity, separate social groups (separate individuals)
also occupy different socialdifferent positions and have different socialal statuses (Fig. 1).

2. Institutional structure the cheers of society is the aggregate interacting social media institutions that ensure the stability chivye forms of organization and management of society. Every institute (a group of institutions) regulates relationships in a certain area societies, e.g. political institutions (state, parties etc.) regulate relations in the political sphere, economic - in the economic (Fig. 2).

3. The institutional system of society can be represented as a matrix, the cells (institutions, statuses) of which are filled with specific people from certain social groups and communities. Thus, there is a "superimposition" of the social composition of society on the institutional structure. At the same time, specific people can occupy and release certain cells (statuses), and the matrix (structure) itself is relatively stable. For example, the President of Ukraine, in accordance with the Constitution of Ukraine, is re-elected every five years, and the status of the President and the institution presidencies remain unchanged for many years; parents grow old and die, and their statuses are occupied by new generations.

4. In a democratic society, all social institutions are formally (legally) equal. However, in real life, some institutions may dominate others. For example, political institutions can impose their will on economic ones and vice versa. Each social institution has its own social statuses, which are also not equivalent. For example, the status of the president in political institutions is paramount; the status of a member of parliament is more significant than the status of an ordinary voter; the status of the owner of a firm or manager in economic institutions is more preferable than the status of an ordinary worker, etc.

social community

Social community is big or small a group of people, having common social characteristics, occupying the same social position, united by joint activities (or value orientations).

Society as an integral socio-cultural system consists of many individuals who are simultaneously members of large and small social communities. For example, a specific individual - a citizen of his country - can simultaneously be a member of such large social communities as ethnic, territorial, professional, etc. In addition, he, as a rule, is a member of several small social groups at once - a family, a work team, a scientific department , a circle of friends, etc. People of the same profession or one type of activity (miners, doctors, teachers, metallurgists, nuclear scientists) unite in a community; with common ethnic characteristics (Russians, Tatars, Evenks); with approximately the same social status (representatives of the lower, middle or upper classes), etc.

Social community is not the sum of individual individuals, but is complete system and, like any system, it has its own sources of self-development and is the subject of social interaction.

Social communities are distinguished by a wide variety of types and forms, for example, according to the following features:

• in terms of quantitative composition - from two or three people to tens and even hundreds of millions;
• by duration of existence - from several minutes to many millennia;
• according to the basic system-forming features - professional, territorial, ethnic, demographic,
  sociocultural, confessional, etc.

The main form of social communities are social groups.

Society in its concrete life reality acts as a set of many social groups. The whole life of a person from birth to death takes place in these groups: family, school, student, industrial, army teams, sports team, circle of friends, girlfriends, etc. A social group is a kind of mediator between an individual and society. This is the immediate environment in which social processes arise and develop. In this sense, it performs the functions of a link in the "individual-society" system. A person realizes his belonging to society and his social interests through belonging to a certain social group, through which he participates in the life of society. Membership in various groups determines the status and authority of a person in society.

2. Social stratification.

Even Plato and Aristotle divided society (the state) into three main social strata: the highest, the middle and the lowest. Subsequently, the division of social groups and individuals into categories was called the social class structure of society.

Social class structure of society - it is a set of interacting social classes, social strata and relations between them.

Basics modern approach to the study of the social class structure of society and the determination of people's belonging to certain social strata (strata) were laid by M. Weber. He considered the social structure of society as multidimensional, multilevel. Without denying the importance of the economic factor in the social inequality of people, M. Weber introduced such additional criteria for determining social belonging as social prestige(social status) and attitude to power(the ability and ability to use the resources of power). Social prestige, according to M. Weber, may not depend on wealth and power. For example, scientists, lawyers, priests, public figures may have relatively small incomes, but at the same time have higher prestige than many rich entrepreneurs or high-ranking officials.

A significant contribution to the development of the theory of stratification was made by P. Sorokin, T. Parsois, J. Shils, B. Barber, W. Moore and others. Thus, the sociologist P. Sorokin most clearly substantiated the criteria for people to belong to one or another stratum. He identifies three main criteria: economic, professional, political.

Theory of social stratification gives a more realistic idea of ​​the social structure of modern society than the Marxist doctrine of classes. It is based on the principle of differentiation (stratification) of people into social classes and layers (strata) according to such criteria as income level, authority, prestige of the profession, level of education, etc. At the same time, the concept of “class” is used as a collective term that unites people with approximately the same status.

Social stratification is the differentiation (stratification) of a certain set of people into social classes and layers in a hierarchical rank (higher and lower). Strata (from lat. stratum - layer, layer) - a social layer of people with similar social indicators. The basis of the stratification structure is the natural and social inequality of people.

The social class structure of modern society is usually divided into three main social classes: higher, middle And lower. For greater differentiation according to certain social characteristics, each class, in turn, can be divided into separate social strata-strata.

The number of divisions into classes and strata may depend on the specific tasks of sociological research. If the purpose of the study is to obtain a general idea of ​​the social structure of society, then the number of divisions will be small. If it is necessary to obtain more detailed information about certain social strata or about the structure as a whole, then the number of divisions can be increased in accordance with the objectives of the study.

When studying the social structure, it must be taken into account that the social composition of society (division into social communities), as a rule, does not coincide with social class differentiation. For example, a highly skilled worker in terms of income, lifestyle and ways of satisfying his needs can be classified as a middle class, while a low-skilled worker can be classified as a lower class.

Each society tends to institutionalize social inequality so that no one can arbitrarily and randomly change the structure of social stratification. For this, there are special mechanisms (institutions) that protect and reproduce the social hierarchy. For example, the institution of property gives different chances to a wealthy heir and to a person from a poor family; the institute of education makes it easier to make a career for those who have acquired the relevant knowledge; membership in a political party provides an opportunity to make a political career, etc.

In different spheres of life, an individual can occupy different social positions. For example, a person with a high political status may receive relatively small incomes, and a wealthy entrepreneur may not have proper education, etc. Therefore, to determine the social status specific individual or social group in empirical research use integral indicator of social position (integral status), which is determined by the totality of all measurements.

In addition to this method, there are others, for example, the method of self-classification, the essence of which is self-assessment of one's class affiliation. It cannot be considered objective in terms of evaluation criteria, but to a large extent reflects the class consciousness of people.

3. Social mobility and marginality.

The relative stability of the social structure of society does not mean that there are no movements, changes and displacements in it. Some generations of people leave, and their places (statuses) are occupied by others; new types of activity, new professions, new social statuses appear; an individual throughout his life can (forced) repeatedly change his social position, etc.

The movement of people from one social group, class, stratum to another is called social mobility. The term " social mobility” was introduced into sociology by P. A. Sorokin, who considered social mobility as any change in social status. In modern sociology, the theory of social mobility is widely used to study the social structure of society.

Distinguish the following types social mobility:

• vertical upward and downward mobility. For example, an individual takes more than high position, significantly improves his financial situation, wins elections or vice versa, loses a prestigious job, his company goes bankrupt, etc.;
• horizontal mobility - movement of an individual or group within one social stratum;
• individual mobility - a separate individual moves asocial space in one direction or another;
• group mobility - entire social groups, social strata and classes change their social position in the social structure. For example, former peasants move into the category of hired workers; miners of mines liquidated due to unprofitability become workers in other areas.

Movements of large social groups occur especially intensively during periods of economic restructuring, acute socio-economic crises, major socio-political upheavals (revolution, Civil War and etc.). For example, the revolutionary events of 1917 in Russia and Ukraine led to the overthrow of the old ruling class and the formation of a new ruling elite, new social strata. Serious political and economic changes are also taking place in Ukraine at present. Socio-economic relations, ideological guidelines, political priorities are changing, new social classes and social strata are emerging.

Changing social positions (statuses) requires considerable efforts from the individual (group). New status, a new role, a new socio-cultural environment dictate their own terms, their own rules of the game. Adaptation to new conditions is often associated with a radical restructuring of life orientations. In addition, the new social environment itself has a kind of filters, carrying out the selection of "ours" and the rejection of "them". It happens that a person, having lost his socio-cultural environment, cannot adapt to the new one. Then he, as it were, "gets stuck" between two social strata, between two cultures. For example, a wealthy former small entrepreneur is trying to get into the higher strata of society. He, as it were, comes out of his old environment, but he is also a stranger to the new environment - "a hodgepodge in the nobility." Another example: a former research worker, forced to earn a living as a cart driver or small business, is weighed down by his position; for him the new environment is alien. Often he becomes the object of ridicule and humiliation on the part of less educated, but more adapted to the conditions of their environment, "colleagues".

Marginality(French that rgipa1 - extreme) is a socio-psychological concept. This is not only a certain intermediate position of the individual in the social structure, but also his own self-perception, self-perception. If a homeless person feels comfortable in his social environment, then he is not marginalized. A marginal is someone who believes that their current position is temporary or accidental. People who are forced to change their type of activity, profession, socio-cultural environment, place of residence, etc. (for example, refugees) experience their marginality especially hard.

It is necessary to distinguish between marginality as an integral part of natural social mobility and forced marginality, that arose in a crisis society, which becomes a tragedy for large social groups. "Natural" marginality does not have a mass and long-term character and does not pose a threat to the stable development of society. “Forced” mass marginality, which takes on a protracted long-term character, indicates a crisis state of society.

4. Social institutions.

A social institution is a relatively stable complex (system) of norms, rules, customs, traditions, principles, statuses and roles that regulate relations in various spheres of society. For example, political institutions regulate relations in the political sphere, economic institutions - in the economic sphere, etc.

However, it must be borne in mind that a social institution is a multifunctional system. Therefore, one institution may be involved in the performance of several functions in different areas of society, and vice versa, several institutions may be involved in the performance of one function. For example, the institution of marriage regulates marital relations, participates in the regulation of family relations, and at the same time can contribute to the regulation of property relations, inheritance, etc.

Social institutions are formed and created to meet the most important individual and social needs and interests. They are the main regulatory mechanisms in all major areas of human life. Institutions ensure the stability and predictability of people's relations and behavior, protect the rights and freedoms of citizens, protect society from disorganization, and form a social system.

A social institution should be distinguished from specific organizations, social groups and individuals. The ways of interaction and behavior prescribed by institutions are impersonal. For example, the institution of the family is not specific parents, children and other family members, but a certain system of formal and informal norms and rules, social statuses and roles, on the basis of which family relations are built. Therefore, any person involved in the activities of an institution must comply with the relevant requirements. If a person does not properly fulfill the social role prescribed by the institution, then he can be deprived of his status (a parent can be deprived of his parental rights, an official - of his position, etc.).

To perform its functions, a social institution forms (creates) the necessary institutions within which its activities are organized. In addition, each institution must have the necessary facilities and resources.

For example, for functioning of the institute of education, institutions such as schools, colleges, universities are being built, necessary buildings and buildings stand out cash and other resources.

All human life is organized, directed, supported and controlled by social institutions. So, a child, as a rule, is born in one of the institutions of the institute of health - a maternity hospital, primary socialization takes place at the institute of the family, receives education and a profession in various institutions of institutions of general and vocational education; the security of the individual is provided by such institutions as the state, government, courts, police, etc.; maintain health health institutions and social protection. At the same time, each institution in its field performs the functions of social control and forces people to obey accepted norms. The main social institutions in society are:

institutions of family and marriage- the need for the reproduction of the human race and primary socialization;

political institutions(state, parties, etc.) - the need for security, order and management;

economic institutions(production, property, etc.) - the need for obtaining means of subsistence;

educational institutions- the need for the socialization of the younger generations, the transfer of knowledge, and the training of personnel;

cultural institutions- the need for the reproduction of the socio-cultural environment, for the transfer of cultural norms and values ​​to the younger generations;

institutions of religion- the need to solve spiritual problems.

The institutional system of society does not remain unchanged. As society develops, new social needs arise and new institutions are formed to meet them. At the same time, the “old” institutions are either reformed (adapted to new conditions) or disappear. For example, such social institutions as the institution of slavery, the institution of serfdom, the institution of the monarchy were eliminated in many countries. They were replaced by the institution of the presidency, the institution of parliamentarism, the institutions of civil society, and such institutions as the institutions of family and marriage, the institutions of religion have been significantly transformed.

5. Social organizations.

Society as a social reality is ordered not only institutionally, but also organizationally. Social organization is a certain way of joint activity of people, after which it takes the form of an orderly, regulated, coordinated, aimed at achieving specific goals of interaction. Organization as a process of establishing and coordinating the behavior of individuals is inherent in all social formations: associations of people, organizations, institutions, etc.

Social organization - a social group focused on achieving interrelated specific goals and the formation of highly formalized structures.

formal organizations. They are building social relations on the basis of regulation of communications, statuses, norms. They are, for example, industrial enterprise, firm, university, municipal structure (mayor's office). The basis of formal organization is the division of labor, its specialization on a functional basis. The more developed the specialization, the richer and more complex the administrative functions will be, the more multifaceted the structure of the organization. The formal organization resembles a pyramid in which tasks are differentiated at several levels. In addition to the horizontal division of labor, it is characterized by coordination, leadership (hierarchy of job positions) and various vertical specializations. Formal organization is rational, it is characterized by service connections between individuals; it is fundamentally impersonal; designed for abstract individuals between whom standardized relationships are established based on formal business communication. Under certain conditions, these features of formal organization turn it into a bureaucratic system.

Informal organizations . They are based on comradely relations and the personal choice of the participants' connections and are characterized by social independence. These are amateur groups, leadership relationships, sympathies, etc. informal organization has a significant influence on the formal and seeks to change the existing relations in it according to its needs.

The vast majority of the goals that people and social communities set for themselves cannot be achieved without social organizations, which predetermines their omnipresence and diversity. The most significant among them:

Organizations for the production of goods and services (industrial, agricultural, service enterprises and
firms, financial institutions, banks);

Organizations in the field of education (preschool, school,
higher educational establishments, institutions of additional education);

Organizations in the field of medical care,
health, recreation, physical education And
sports (hospitals, sanatoriums, tourist camps, stadiums);

Research organizations;

Legislative and executive authorities.

They are also called business organizations that perform socially useful functions: cooperation, cooperation, subordination (subordination), management, social control.

In general, every organization exists in a specific physical, technological, cultural, political and social environment, must adapt to it and coexist with it. There are no self-sufficient, closed organizations. All of them, in order to exist, work, achieve goals, must have numerous connections with the outside world.

Society consists of a large number of different elements that are in constant interaction - from the individual, social institutions and ending with large communities. All this is included in the structures. In other words, this is what parts, elements society consists of and in what relationships and interactions they are. In sociology, for the first time, the concept of the structure of society was applied by G. Spencer, who understood this term as stable relationships between the social organism and its individual parts. In general, he likened society to an organism. According to the social structure - this is the order, the arrangement of functionally interconnected elements and the dependencies between them, forming the internal system of the object.

There are several definitions for this term. Here, for example, one of them: a social structure is a certain way of interconnection and interaction of elements, that is, individuals who occupy public positions (statuses) and perform specific functions (roles). You can see what is important in this definition- elements, their connections and interactions. Or, for example, such a definition, taking into account strata or layers, the structure is a set of social positions, interconnected and interacting with each other, ordered hierarchically in terms of their stratification.

Properties public structure can be considered depending on the following variables:

1. Interdependence.

2. Constancy.

3. Fundamentality of measurement.

4. Defining influence after an empirically observed phenomenon.

The social structure of society as a system is a way of interconnecting subsystems that interact in it and ensure its integrity. What subsystems are included in the social system? The social structure includes individuals, groups of people (community), united on any basis, their connections, relationships and interactions, various organizations and institutions, groups, communities, norms, values ​​and more. Each of these elements, parts of the structure can be in a certain relationship with others, occupy a certain position and play a specific role in society.

The most detailed analysis of the social structure was given by K. Marx, who showed that the political, cultural and religious aspects of life depend on the mode of production. He believed that the economic basis also determines the ideological, cultural superstructure in society. Followers and students of K. Marx proposed somewhat different attitudes, considering cultural, political and ideological organizations relatively autonomous and dependent on the economic component only in the end.

But the view of K. Marx and his followers on the structure of society was not the only one. So, E. Durkheim wrote, in particular, that they play a very significant role in the integration of society, uniting its various parts into a single whole. He singled out two forms of structural relations: mechanistic and organic solidarities. M. Weber studied and analyzed the organizational mechanisms in society: the market, bureaucracy and politics.

T. Parsons believed that society is a special type that has a high level of specialization and self-sufficiency. The functional unity of society as a system is determined by social subsystems, to which he attributed the economy (adaptation), politics (goal achievement), culture (maintenance of the model). The integrative one is determined by the system of “societal community”, which contains mainly normative structures.

Annotation: The purpose of the lecture: to reveal the structure of society as a system, the content and types of social structure, the social status and social prestige of the individual and the community.

The structure of society as a system

The social structure, according to the definition of A. I. Kravchenko, is the anatomical skeleton of society. The elements of such a structure are social statuses and roles. However, the description of what communities of people (statuses) "consists" society does not yet give a complete picture of it. Just like giving no idea about the building enum building materials used for its construction. You also need to know how this building was built. Therefore, it is necessary to know about the social structure of society, i.e. about the social structure. However, before proceeding to consider the social structure of society, it is necessary to present the structure of society as a whole. As we know, society is a complex system represented by the interconnection of its economic, spiritual, political, personal, informational and social subsystems. How do these subsystems form the structure of society? First of all, it is necessary to understand the content of the concept of "structure". The structure is the internal structure of the system, which exists in the form of stable, ordered interconnections of elements, thanks to which the system maintains its integrity. Respectively, structure of society can be defined as stable and orderly relationships between its subsystems - economic, political, spiritual, personal, informational and social.

The orderliness of the links between these systems is manifested in the fact that, performing their functions, they ensure the stable functioning of society as a whole. This - functional (horizontal) structure of society. Society, therefore, is a system in which the economic, spiritual, political, informational and social functions performed by the corresponding subsystems ensure its integrity in their interaction.

The economic function is to create material conditions in the form of production, exchange, distribution and consumption of material goods for the functioning of other spheres of society. The spiritual function manifests itself as the creation of moral, artistic, religious, scientific, ideological and other conditions for politics, economics, culture, communications, personal life and social relations. The political function is associated with the formation and spread of the political role, which ensures the controllability of economic, spiritual, social, cultural and communicative processes with the help of political institutions. The cultural function is characterized as ensuring the stability, orderliness, continuity of all social processes. – Information and communication function is the creation of a network of economic, political, spiritual, social and cultural messages. The social function consists in determining the social status of all subjects and solving their social problems. Thus, society appears to us as an extremely complex "functional" mechanism in comparison, for example, with technical systems.

Each of the subsystems of society not only serves society as a system, but also has the property of self-sufficiency, strives for its own internal order. At the same time, the desire for internal stability, self-sufficiency may contradict the need for the sustainable functioning of society as a whole. For example, the political system in different countries begins to work for itself, while hindering the effective development social sphere, economic or spiritual life. The same can be said about other areas of society. Hence, contradictions arise between the subsystems of society, the existence of non-functional (ie, useless for other areas) and dysfunctional (ie, interfering with other functions) relationships between them. Such contradictions can be resolved in the course of successive reforms of both the subsystems themselves and the forms of interconnections between them. However, unresolved contradictions can lead to a deep crisis of the social system and even its collapse, as we saw in the example of the USSR.

The order in the interconnections of these systems is also manifested in the fact that they are located in a certain subordination to each other. Subordination in this case should be understood as the dominant role of one subsystem in relation to others. One of the subsystems can predetermine the content and nature of the functioning of other subsystems. Some subsystems exist as if for the sake of others, the former are given more importance than the latter. The order of subordination of subsystems of society can be designated as vertical (hierarchical) structure.

The hierarchy of the systems of society is not always the same. In a traditional society, politics dominates the economy, determining in many respects the nature of property, labor organization, methods of distribution and the amount of consumption. State power regulates the forms of ownership, labor organization, determines the permitted and prohibited forms economic activity. The economy in such a society exists "for the sake of" politics. In totalitarian societies, economic, spiritual and other relations are also subject to state power: the latter determines how to write scientific and artistic works, what to produce, how to think, etc. At certain stages of the development of society, religious (ideological) relations become dominant in relation to the rest, regulating the forms and methods of production, consumption, exchange, distribution, management, family life, education, etc. In societies with a market system, the economic system largely determines the content and structure of political, spiritual, social life, market mechanisms also penetrate into political institutions (parliamentarism, election competition and change of power, etc.), into spiritual life (commercialization of art, education, science, etc.), in social life(dominant in society are the strata that dominate the economy) and even in private life (marriage of convenience, pragmatism in gender relations, etc.).

According to K. Marx, the structure of society can be designated by the concepts of "basis" and "superstructure". At the heart of the social structure is the economy (relations of production, basis), over which rise political, social and spiritual relations (superstructure). The development of society is ultimately determined by changes in the base, which determine changes in the superstructure. At the same time, the superstructure itself actively influences the basis. Thus, K. Marx was one of the first to propose the concept of the structure of society: it generally contains an idea of ​​both vertical and horizontal structure. Economic relations determine the content of superstructural relations, while the latter perform specific functions (in which their activity is manifested) in relation to the basis.

Each of the subsystems of society also has its own horizontal and vertical structure. Thus, one can single out the economic, political, spiritual, communication, social and personal, intellectual and cultural structure of society.

Horizontal and vertical social structure of society

Society can exist as a social system only when stable and orderly social ties form the dominant, basic type of relationship. At the same time, the relations of social chaos, although they take place, do not determine the main content of the social system. However, society is not always dominated by orderly social relations. Society as a social system has its own measure of chaos (entropy). If chaotic social relations become excessive, then this leads to the destruction of the social system (which is observed during periods of deep social crises). The dominance of social chaos (like civil war, for example) can only be a temporary state, the permanent and basic state of society is the predominance of social order over social disorder. The social structure of society is perceived in the public mind as social balance, stability in the relationships between classes, nations, generations, professional communities, etc. In other words, social structure is the skeleton of society, the basis of social order. So, the social structure of society is understood as a network of stable and orderly relationships between the individual, groups and society, thanks to which society as a social system ensures its integrity.

It is possible to distinguish such varieties of social structure as socio-demographic, socio-class, socio-ethnic, socio-professional, socio-confessional, socio-territorial structures.

However, it is impossible to directly see how society works. This requires abstraction, singling out from the entire set of stable social relationships those who constitute the original framework of society. Imagine social structure society is possible only by constructing its theoretical model.

The theoretical model of social structure can be depicted as a sphere with horizontal and vertical frameworks holding the social system together. The horizontal frame is functional, and the vertical frame hierarchical structure of society.

The first type of social structure of society is social functional structure. Communities of people are interconnected in such a way that the actions of some are a dependent variable on the actions of others. Entrepreneurs and employees in their actions depend on each other. The same can be said about the functional relationships between urban and rural residents, residents of different regions. Ethnic and racial communities, men and women, generations are also functionally interconnected, occupying one or another position in the system of social division of labor, being represented to one degree or another in various class, professional, territorial and other communities. According to their content, functional ties between communities of people can be economic, political, personal, informational and spiritual. According to their carriers (subjects and objects), functional connections are social. Functional relationships can be ordered (pro-functional) and chaotic (dysfunctional). The latter manifests itself, for example, in the form of strikes (the refusal of certain professional groups or representatives of the organization to perform their functions). However, society exists as a social system only when stable functional ties prevail. At the same time, dysfunctional ties can also play a constructive role in a society that is ripe for radical change.

In society, many non-functional relationships between communities of people are found. The functions performed by social subjects are recognized as useful for society, but they are not always useful for the subjects themselves. In many cases, people are forced to perform certain functions, because they are forced to do so by society or various communities. At the same time, the functions performed are either indifferent to the subjects themselves, or contradict their vital interests (for example, slave owners do not perform any useful functions in relation to their slaves, and the performance of slave functions is forced for a slave). This type relations is based on the dissemination of the will of some in relation to others.

Material and spiritual goods, due to which people interact, have their own limitations (both due to natural reasons - the lack of natural resources or the poor development of material and spiritual production, and due to the deficit artificially created by some groups for other groups). As a result, social communities are interconnected not only functionally, but also hierarchically. The hierarchical structure is the stability and orderliness of the relationships between the individual, communities of people and society in terms of different levels of access to public goods ( social inequality).

Society can be imagined as a ladder, on different steps of which certain communities of people are located. The higher the rung, the greater the access to public goods. In everyday consciousness, society, on the basis of social inequality, is usually divided into "tops", "bottoms" and "middle strata".

One part of society believes that social inequality is unnatural for human nature and the ideals of a just, humane society, it has only a negative significance for the progress of society and the development of the individual. Others, on the contrary, believe that social inequality is an integral, natural feature of any society and even progress condition and prosperity of society. Representatives of functionalism in sociology seek to explain social inequality by the functional order in society: the differences in the communities of people in the social hierarchy stem from the social functions they perform. Therefore, attempts to change social inequality lead to a functional disorder of society and are therefore undesirable. In other words, no distinction is made between the horizontal and vertical structure of society. Not only in ordinary consciousness, but also in some sociological theories, there is a tendency to ignore the differences between social and individual inequality. As a result, social inequality is explained, in fact, by individual inequality. In particular, such an interpretation of social inequality was characteristic of the theory of elites (G. Mosca, V. Pareto and others), which explains the “right” of the elite to exercise political power by the fact that it allegedly consists of people with special mental qualities. However, no matter how we evaluate social inequality, it exists objectively, regardless of our will and consciousness.

It is known from history that numerous uprisings of slaves, even in the event of their victorious completion, did not lead to the destruction of slavery (the hierarchical order of the slave-owning type). Peasant wars and uprisings in Russia until the second half of the 18th century (when the crisis of the feudal-serf system began) did not take place under the slogans of the liquidation of the feudal hierarchy and serfdom. In modern countries, including our country, social inequality is stable. At the same time, there are social forces that seek not to establish new system domination, but to social justice and real democracy.

At the same time, in any society, in one way or another, relations that deny this order, try to rebuild the vertical structure of society, manifest themselves and make themselves felt. Such relations dominate in the era of cardinal social changes, but in periods of stable functioning and development of society, they are secondary and do not determine the essence of society.

It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of "social inequality" and "individual inequality". Social inequality is a characteristic of the social structure of society, the objective position of a person, communities of people in society, while individual inequality characterizes the personal qualities of individual abilities, the subjective capabilities of individuals. Social inequality between communities can consist in significant differences in access to economic benefits (in employment opportunities, in wages for the same work, in the ability to own or dispose of economic resources, etc.), to political power (in inequality, in opportunities to express one's interests in making and implementing political decisions, etc.), to information benefits (opportunity to get an education, access to artistic wealth, etc.). Individual inequality can be expressed in different levels of performance, intellectual and other psychological qualities of individuals. Individuals who are clearly superior to others in their abilities, however, may occupy lower rungs on the social ladder than individuals who do not stand out in any way in their subjective capabilities. Outstanding mathematician 19th century S. Kovalevskaya could not find a job in Russian universities because it was believed that women could not be teachers in higher education. And even now, with the same qualifications as men, women cannot count on equal conditions for employment, promotion, and remuneration. A similar or different manifestation of social inequality can be observed in relation to generations, nations, racial communities, urban and rural residents.

The horizontal and vertical social structures of society are closely interconnected. Those social communities, the functions of which lose their significance, eventually turn out to be ousted from their "step". Changing social functions can also lead to a reduction in social inequality. The functions of women in modern societies have changed significantly, primarily in the field of professional activity which was reflected in the change in their position on the social ladder. Thus, changes in the functional structure to one degree or another cause changes in the hierarchical structure. On the other hand, hierarchy influences the horizontal structure to a certain extent. For example, the higher position of men on the social ladder, one way or another, contributes to the imposition on women of those functions that men avoid. Representatives of those communities of people who occupy a higher position in the social hierarchy have more conditions for obtaining a higher level of education and more qualified work. For example, residents of large cities are much more likely to find a better job or receive a better education than residents of medium or small cities.

The interdependence of vertical and horizontal structures cannot be exaggerated. Each side of the social structure has its own "logic" ( internal conditioning). For example, teachers, even in economically prosperous countries, despite the importance and complexity of the social functions they perform, nevertheless consistently belong to the "below average" and not "above average" strata of society. The hierarchical structure largely supports itself, regulates and ensures its stability (although this is functional and turns out to be disadvantageous and even harmful). The same can be said about the functional structure of society. Bureaucracy (in the negative sense of the word), for example, is characterized by the fact that officials seek to increase the size of the administrative apparatus (i.e., new functions are created for the sake of the functions themselves), which naturally leads to a decrease in efficiency and management. One of the functions of modern state power is to ensure the correspondence between the horizontal and vertical structures of society. In other words, the more complex and important for society is the type of activity, the higher should be its payment and other incentives.

The nature of the relationship between the vertical and functional aspects of the social structure depends not only on the level of development, but also on the type of society. In a traditional society, the hierarchical structure plays a major role. Social functions in such a society are rigidly tied to communities of people who occupy a particular position on the social ladder. For example, professionalism is a sign of a person's pre-low status (a professional is a craftsman, be it a shoemaker, a potter, a doctor, a teacher, an artist, a poet, a professor - therefore, he occupies one of the last places in the vertical order of society). The meaning of the social hierarchy in many respects comes down to forcing certain communities to perform certain social functions (in the form of serfdom, vassal duties, official duty). Without coercion (in the form of military force, symbolic - religious and ritual, etc.) in a traditional society, the functional order is subject to destruction. The position held in the social vertical dictates well-defined social functions (if a person is a nobleman, he is obliged to perform the official and other functions assigned to him, if he is a peasant, then he is obliged to work out corvée or pay dues).

In an industrial society, there is an evolution from the dominance of the vertical structure to the dominance of the functional structure. As a result of the social division of labor, which extends to almost the entire employed population, the deepening of social differentiation, the position in the social hierarchy in many respects begins to depend on the significance of the social functions performed. However, in modern Russia those professions and specialties that are associated with innovations in various spheres of life are not sufficiently rewarded. This indicates the preservation of the archaic orders characteristic of pre-industrial societies.

Social status and social prestige

Each individual and each community occupy a certain position in the social structure of society, which in sociology is commonly called social status. Social status characterizes both the social functions that an individual and communities perform in society, and the opportunities that society provides them.

We can talk about two aspects of social status - vertical and functional. There are also prescribed and achievable types of social status. Prescribed (innate) social status is a position in the social structure that a person or communities of people occupy regardless of their efforts, by virtue of the social structure itself. Achievable (acquired) social status is a position in the social structure that a person or communities of people occupy due to the expenditure of their own energy. Thus, statuses derived from belonging to gender, generation, race, nation, family, territorial community, estate are prescribed. Belonging to these communities to a large extent in itself determines a person's place in both the vertical and horizontal structures, regardless of his personal efforts. Achievable can be a status that a person occupies due to diligence, enterprise, hard work or other qualities.

Prescribed and attainable status are related to each other. The level of qualification and education, for example, depends not only on the person himself, but also on what place he occupies in the system of social inequality. Children from poor families have much less access to higher education than children from wealthy families. Rural dwellers are also much less likely to receive a higher level of education and more skilled work than city dwellers. The attainable status therefore depends largely on the prescribed status. On the other hand, prescribed status is also not absolute. Only in a traditional society, whose social structure was frozen, immobile, the prescribed status guaranteed a lifelong position of a person. In modern society, for the social position of a person, personal qualities and personal efforts of people are of greater importance than in traditional society.

However, it would be an idealization of modern society to recognize the priority of attainable social status. So far there is no such society in which the place of each person depended only on his abilities and efforts. The social structure of all past and present societies is characterized by the leading role of prescribed social status.

The distance between social statuses is called social distance. Unlike physical distance, social distance measured in special social measures. This is the scope of access to public goods. People who are in physical space next to each other can be separated by a huge social distance.

The social distance between individuals and communities of people exists objectively, regardless of our ideas about it. It can be measured using methods developed in empirical sociology. However, in the perception of people, this distance is determined subjectively, based on how they define their own social status. The latter is the starting point for determining social status and other people. We present the social structure, social statuses and social distance in comparison of "foreign" and "our" statuses. With the same level of income, for example, a person can assess his social status differently depending on how many people there are and how much they have more or less income. Such a comparative, comparative assessment of social status in the public mind is called social prestige. So, in society, individual professions and, accordingly, professional communities, separate territories and areas of residence, classes, etc. Prestige is reflected in social representations of the personality and communities of people of both vertical and horizontal statuses. Any social status may be of little prestige from the point of view of the social vertical and prestigious from the point of view of its functional significance (horizontal cut of the structure).

From the social status and prestige should be distinguished personal status - the position of the individual in the system of interpersonal relations. A high rank in one group can be combined with a low rank in another - this is the phenomenon of status mismatch. It is the statuses that determine the nature, content, duration or intensity of human relationships - both personal and social. So, when choosing a marriage partner, it is the status of an individual of the opposite sex that is the main criterion for making a decision. So, the functional connection of statuses determines social relations. The dynamic side of the status is the social role, which determines social interaction. Although the structure describes a stable aspect of the structure of society (statics), social roles give it mobility (dynamics). This is due to the fact that each individual interprets social expectations in his own way and chooses an individual model of behavior of a person of a certain status.

Brief summary:

1. Social structure is the anatomical skeleton of society, reflecting the network of stable connections between the individual, groups and society.
2. A function is a manifestation of the properties of an object, element in relation to the whole, system
3. Functional (horizontal) structure - stable links between the subsystems of society: political, economic, personal, spiritual, cultural, information and communication and social.
4. Hierarchy is the arrangement of parts or elements of a social whole in order from highest to lowest.
5. Vertical structure - the dominance of some subsystems over others
6. Social inequality - differences between communities in their access to public goods.
7. Social status - the position of individuals and communities in the social structure
8. A comparative subjective assessment of social statuses in the public and group consciousness is called social prestige.

Practice set

Questions:

1. Is it permissible to identify social status with the person who occupies it?
2. What is the difference between the concepts of "social composition of society" and "social structure of society"?
3. Explain why social interaction describes the dynamics of society, and social relations describe its statics
4. How do you see the difference between horizontal and vertical structures?
5. What did K. Marx mean by the basis of society?
6. What is the relationship between social order and social chaos?
7. Why is social inequality a natural feature of any society?
8. From the position of what status - vertical or horizontal - is the profession of a scientist prestigious in modern Russia?

Themes for term papers, abstracts, essays:

1. The phenomenon of mixed social status
2. Contradiction and harmony of personality statuses
3. Social status and social relations
4. Social role and social dynamics
5. Role recruitment and the problem of role identification
6. Structuring new social processes
7. social prestige and social types personalities
8. Social inequality as progress condition societies
9. Social and personal inequality

17. The concept of the social structure of society

Social structure is the internal structure of society (communities, groups); an ordered set of social communities, social institutions and relations between them. In the narrow sense of the word, social structure is understood as a set of social statuses and roles that are functionally interconnected.

The social structure plays a crucial role in maintaining the integrity and stability of society. When analyzing the social structure of society, the following social phenomena are usually considered: social status, social role, social differentiation, social stratification, social inequality, social mobility, social marginality, social institutions and social organizations, social communities, etc. Depending on which of these phenomena focuses on, a certain theory is created and an appropriate approach to the study of society is used.

Sociology considers society as an integral system that includes subsystems of a lower order. Society, as a system is complex, multidimensional, dynamically changing in time and space, has a complex multidimensional structure, including elements of varying degrees of complexity, which are united by various kinds of connections, interactions and communications, functioning in close unity.

Also, society can be considered as a set of various groups of people that are formed on the basis of common interests, goals, interactions, communication, mutual assistance, etc. The integrity of this system is given by interactions and relationships that unite the elements of the system into a kind of unity. It follows that society is an integral system and the subject of human interaction. The elements of society as a system are:

social institutions,

social communities,

social groups, classes, layers,

organizations,

human individuals.

Accordingly, various relations are built in society: economic, legal, legal, managerial, religious, personal, group, family, etc.

As you know, society is extremely differentiated (heterogeneous), but also hierarchized. In it, some layers have more power, wealth, privileges. Inequality exists in 2 forms:

1) natural inequality since people differ in sex, age, strength, intelligence, beauty;

2) social inequality (differences) is generated by the division of labor, the way of life (rural, urban), social roles (boss - subordinate, owner - employee).

Consequently, social inequality, and hence the difference in the status of people is a natural state of any society. Inequality exists not only between individuals, but also between large communities, classes, strata, groups.

In sociology, social structure is most often understood as a set of social statuses and roles that are functionally interconnected. Thus, society (social structure in the broadest sense) and the individual are closely linked with each other.

social status- it is an integral indicator of the social position of an individual or a social group. Social status is some stable, sustainable elements of the social structure that determine the position of a person in society, set a certain set of rights and obligations. Each status is, as it were, an empty cell in the structure of society (taken all together, they give the social structure of a given society).

Social statuses, despite their differences, have a similar structure. The main elements of any social status include:

status role - a model of behavior focused on a specific social status;

status range - the choice of a behavior model within the framework of a social role given by social status (an individual always has options for behavior within the prescribed rules of behavior)

status rights - those rights that an individual receives upon acquiring a given social status (with promotion, salary increases, the number of subordinates, etc.);

status obligations - with the acquisition of any status, an individual is not only endowed with new rights, but also acquires new duties;

status image - a combination of rights and obligations (or the prevailing public opinion about the behavior of people with a given status);

status symbols - external insignia (for example, uniforms);

status identification is the subjective (psychological) convergence of an individual with his social status (some people "live" exclusively for work and thus identify themselves only with this social status). However, any person has many social statuses, and excessive merging with one of them impoverishes and distorts his personality and way of life.

In sociology, prescribed and achieved statuses are distinguished. Prescribed status is acquired from birth (ethnicity, social origin, place of birth, etc.). Achieved statuses a person acquires throughout his life (the status of a student, professor, president, etc.).

The role of social status (its position and place) among other statuses is determined by the prestige of the status. The prestige of social status is a normative-value element of the social structure of society and predetermines the hierarchical structure of society. There are various criteria for the distribution of social statuses by rank. For example, according to a public opinion poll conducted in 1997, Americans considered the profession of a doctor to be the most prestigious (87% of respondents). In second place were scientists (86% of respondents), in third place were teachers (78% of respondents). Next came the engineers, the priests, the police, the military, members of Congress. And only in ninth place were businessmen named. Bankers ranked eleventh in terms of prestige.

The prestige of a particular social status or social role in society is constantly changing, and therefore people's preferences for certain professions are also changing. Thus, the prestige of social status is a kind of magnet that attracts or repels people from any social position in the social hierarchy.

social role- this is the expected behavior of a person, associated with his social status and typical for an individual of the corresponding status in a given society. Social role is a dynamic aspect of social status. The social role acts as a norm (sample) of the behavior of a person of a certain status. A social role can be fixed formally (for example, in a job description that lists the rights and obligations of a person in this position), or it can be informal (for example, public opinion forms the attitudes and expectations of people in a spontaneous way).

Role behavior should be distinguished from a social role, which reflects not socially programmed, expected behavior, but the real, actual behavior of a person performing this role. In role expectations, the emphasis is on those features that guarantee the fulfillment of these social functions. The social role is much narrower than the social status with which it correlates. The totality of social roles is called a role system (or role set).

Social statuses and social roles, placing each person into cells of the social structure, determine his behavior. From here we come to the sociology of personality, i.e. description of the behavior of the individual, determined by social values, norms and patterns of behavior. Of course, society can never completely subdue the thoughts, feelings and behavior of the individual. A person always has a relative freedom of choice, so the social status or social role is a fairly complete, but by no means an all-encompassing behavioral characteristic. In the social status and social role, the norm of a person's social behavior is fixed, but not his personality traits. However, the social role that a person performs always requires him to display certain traits. Therefore, others usually perceive a person according to his social role or status.

1. The concept of the social structure of society.

2. Social statuses and roles.

3. Social groups, communities, institutions, organizations.

4. Classification and stratification of society.

5.Features of the development of the social structure of Ukrainian society.

The social structure of society- a set of elements of society and the relationship between them. The elements of the social structure are the social statuses and roles of the individual, social groups and communities, social institutions and organizations.

social status- this is the position of a person in society (son, daughter, student, student, worker, teacher, technologist, man, woman, pensioner ...) Each status corresponds to a certain social role.

social role- this is a certain behavior and mode of action of a person that correspond to the norms accepted in society and the position of a person in society, his status.

Society consists of many statuses filled with people. The higher the level of development of a society, the more statuses it has (professional, marital, political, religious, economic, etc.)

social group- this is a certain association of people who have common natural and social characteristics and are united by common interests, values, norms, traditions, a system of certain relations.

The main types of social groups:

Small - family, class, student group, brigade, company, platoon ...

Medium - residents of Kramatorsk, Donetsk region, factory workers ...

Large - social strata, professional groups, men, women, youth, pensioners ...

Social community - it is a really existing set of individuals on the scale of the country, the state and the planet as a whole. For example, nations, ethnos, fans, fans, crowd, public, fighters for world peace, participants in broad political and environmental movements ... Social groups are part of social communities.

Social institution - it is a form of organized activity of people, it is a complex of formal and informal norms, rules, principles that regulate various areas human activity.

Social institutions of modern society: the institution of the family, the institution of presidency, the institution of politics, economics, education, religion ... Social institutions are symbols of order and organization in society.

Social organizations- these are any organizations and enterprises in society that have specific goals and functions (factory, bank, restaurant, school ...)

The most relevant today is division of society into classes (classification) and strata (stratification).

Classes - These are large social groups whose members are similar or different in relation to the means of production, in terms of their role in public organization labor, size and form of income.

1. Workers - people employed in industrial production creators of wealth.

2.Workers Agriculture- people who produce crop and livestock products.

3. Employees - people providing services (transport, communications, medicine, housing and communal services, catering, military, civil servants ...).

4. Intelligentsia - people who produce spiritual values ​​(science, culture, education ...).

5. Entrepreneurs.

6. Clergy.

The classification shows a horizontal section of society.

Western sociology of the twentieth century opposed the division of society into classes into division into classes. strata (stratification) are the strata of society that are formed according to certain features:

1. Wealth, income and its size.

2. Power and influence.

3. The prestige of the profession.

4. Education.

In accordance with these characteristics, society is divided into the upper stratum, the middle stratum and the lower stratum. Stratification shows a vertical section of society, indicating the inequality of people. But inequality is an important source of social development.

Social mobility - it is the transition of people from one stratum and groups of society to another. Distinguish between vertical and horizontal mobility. Horizontal mobility is movement at one level of the social structure (turner 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 categories)

Vertical mobility- these are different movements "up" - "down" in the social structure (worker - engineer - plant manager - minister - prisoner).

Features of the development of the social structure of Ukrainian society:

1. Significant social stratification and the formation of "new rich" and "new poor".

2. Unformed middle class (in Ukraine - 15%, in the USA - more than 80% of the population).

3. Significant redistribution of employment among the sectors of the economy.

4. High social mobility and instability of the social structure as a whole.

5.Mass marginalization of society (loss of the norms and values ​​of morality, the meaning of life, one's place in society).