Fundamental principles of management. Management principles

Under the influence of perturbations unknown in advance, the actual behavior of the system deviates from the desired one, set by the control algorithm, and in order to bring the actual behavior closer to the required one, the control algorithm should be linked not only with the properties of the system and with the functioning algorithm, but also with the actual functioning of the system.

The construction of automatic control systems is based on some general fundamental control principles that determine how control algorithms are linked with the specified and actual functioning, and sometimes with the reasons that caused the deviation. The technique uses three fundamental principles: open-loop control, compensation and feedback.

The principle of open control. The essence of the principle is that the control algorithm is built only on the basis of a given functioning algorithm and is not associated with other factors - disturbances or output values of the process. The proximity of the desired behavior of the system to the required one is ensured only by the "rigidity" of the structure and the proper choice of laws that determine the actions of the control device. The general functional diagram of a system built on this principle is shown in Fig. 1-1, a. The task of the control algorithm can be generated both by a special device - the program master, and in advance invested in the design of the control device 2. In the latter case, a separate block 1 in the diagram will be absent. In both

cases, the circuit has the form of an open circuit, in which the main action is transmitted from the inputs of the elements to the outputs, as shown by the arrows. This gave rise to the name of the principle.

Despite the obvious disadvantages associated with the lack of control over the actual state x of object 3, the principle is used everywhere. The elements that make up the system, by themselves, act in an open circuit, and in any system it is possible to single out a “skeletal” part, which, acting as an open circuit, performs its task more or less roughly. Therefore, the principle seems so trivial that it is not even singled out as fundamental.

According to the open-loop principle, for example, program sensors are built, consisting of a program element launcher and the program element itself (a launcher and a drum of a music box, a tape recorder driven by a motor, a profiled cam mechanism or a rheostat, etc.). This also includes a number of linear and functional converters, amplifiers, etc.

Compensation principle (disturbance control).

If among the perturbations z there is one (or few) that has a decisive influence on the deviation compared to the other perturbations, then it is sometimes possible to improve the accuracy of the operation algorithm by measuring this perturbation, introduce corrections into the control algorithm based on the measurement results and compensate for the deviation caused by the data outrage.

Consider for simplicity an example of an inertialess object. Let the characteristic of the object be given by the relation (1-2). In principle, you can choose the control so that there is no deviation:

For example, for a linear characteristic

choosing we get

Examples of compensation systems are a bimetallic system of rods with different coefficients of thermal expansion, which ensures that the length of the pendulum is constant during temperature fluctuations, a scheme for compensating the moment on the shaft steam engine, proposed by Poncelet [which turned out to be inoperative, since the machine was deprived of self-leveling and did not have a static characteristic of the form (1-2)]. The functional diagram of the compensation system is shown in fig. 1-1.6. The disturbance z acting on object 3 is measured by compensation device 4, at the output of which a control action is generated.

An example is the compounding of a DC generator, which ensures that the voltage remains unchanged when the load current changes. If the electromotive force of the generator depends linearly on the magnetizing force (ampere-turns) of the excitation winding, and the decrease in voltage is due only to the active resistance of the armature circuit, i.e., proportional to the load current, then for the given voltage to be constant, it is necessary to change the magnetizing force as a function of the load current so to be Such a change is carried out using an additional excitation winding - a compound winding, through which a current equal or proportional to the armature current passes. The principle of compounding was widely used by electrical engineers in the last quarter of the last century in the control of generators and DC motors, although they did not suspect that use the Poncelet compensation principle, rejected by the regulation theory of those times.

It should be noted that in the case of disturbance control, the effect of only the disturbance that is measured is compensated. The remaining (non-measurable) perturbations lead to uncompensated deviations, as a result of which the compensation does not lead to the complete elimination of the error. More effective is often the combined use of the principles of compensation and feedback (the latter principle is discussed below). Such combined systems are used in the regulation of powerful synchronous generators in power plants (the so-called compounding with correction) and in other schemes.

Feedback principle. Deviation regulation.

The system can also be built in such a way that the accuracy of the execution of the functioning algorithm is ensured even without measuring

disturbances. On fig. 1-1c shows a diagram in which adjustments to the control process are made according to the actual value of the output values of the system. For this purpose, an additional connection 4 is introduced, which may include elements for measuring x and for generating actions on the control device. The scheme has the form of a closed circuit, which gave grounds to call the principle implemented in it the principle of closed-loop control. Since the direction of transfer of influences in the additional connection is opposite to the direction of transfer of the main impact on the object, the introduced additional connection is called feedback,

Scheme fig. 1-1c depicts the most general view of closed systems, not just control systems. According to such a scheme, for example, many converting and counting-deciding elements are built. In control, however, a particular type of closed systems is predominantly common, in which the control algorithm is carried out not directly by the values of the x coordinates, but by their deviations from the values determined by the functioning algorithm

The circuit that implements this kind of feedback control is shown in Fig. 1-1, d. It has element 1, which sets the operation algorithm, and a comparison element - adder 2, which subtracts x from , i.e., generates a value called deviation or control error.

The control action is often generated as a function not only but also of its derivatives and (or) time integrals:

A function, as a rule, must be a non-decreasing function of its arguments and of the same sign as them.

Control in the deviation function is called regulation. The control device in this case is called an automatic regulator. The closed system formed by the object O and the regulator P is called the system automatic regulation(SAR). The regulator that generates the control (regulatory) action in accordance with the algorithm (1-3) forms a negative feedback, since the sign, as follows from (1-2), is the opposite of x. Physically, this means that the controller generates a change in x in the system, directed towards the initial deviation that caused the controller to work, i.e., it seeks to compensate for the deviation that has arisen. Feedback generated

controller is called the main feedback (if, in addition to it, there are other feedbacks in the controller itself or in the object).

The adder in fig. 1-1, d is depicted by a circle divided into sectors. The terms are indicated by the arrows approaching the adder, the sum by the outgoing arrow. Subtrahends are indicated either by a minus sign at the top, or by blackening the sector to which they fit.

On fig. 1-2 shows a diagram of automatic voltage regulation of a DC generator G. A voltage proportional to the regulated voltage is removed from the voltage divider. It is compared with the voltage of a reference power source. The difference, amplified by the amplifier Y, is further fed to the armature of the DC motor driving the excitation rheostat slider in the excitation winding circuit. If it increases beyond the specified value, the motor will move the rheostat slider so that the resistance of the rheostat increases and, therefore, the regulated voltage decreases.

In this circuit, the signal power is not enough to directly control the excitation current, therefore, amplifier U is used. Such circuits, which include amplifiers in the signal circuit that control extraneous energy sources, are called indirect control systems. Accordingly, circuits without intermediate amplifiers, in which it is supplied directly to the regulatory body (or through a gearbox or transformer), are called direct control systems.

Earlier it was mentioned about combined control, combining the principles of compensation and feedback. An interesting variety of combined control is the principle of invariance proposed in 1938 by GV Shchipanov.

The control and disturbing influences change a number of indicators in the object, among which there may be unregulated ones. Let's call all these variable values, depending on the impact, coordinates. Shchipanov proposed to form the control action as a function of the coordinates of the system so that the deviation of the controlled coordinate remains equal to zero regardless of the disturbing action z, i.e., so that the influence of z is completely compensated. G. V. Shchipanov called the regulator constructed in this way ideal. He also received mathematical expressions for the conditions of compensation.

General concepts

The theory of automatic control (TAU) appeared in the second half of the 19th century, first as a theory of regulation. The widespread use of steam engines has led to the need for regulators, that is, special devices that maintain a stable mode of operation of the steam engine. This gave rise to scientific research in the field of control of technical objects. It turned out that the results and conclusions of this theory can be applied to the control of objects of different nature with different principles of action. At present, its sphere of influence has expanded to the analysis of the dynamics of such systems as economic, social, etc. Therefore, the former name "Theory of automatic control" was replaced by a broader one - "Theory of automatic control".

Managing any object(we will denote the control object as OC) there is an impact on it in order to achieve the required states or processes. An aircraft, a machine tool, an electric motor, etc. can serve as an OS. Managing an object with the help of technical means without human intervention is called automatic control. The set of OS and automatic control means is called automatic control system (ACS).

The main task of automatic control is the maintenance of a certain law of change of one or more physical quantities characterizing the processes occurring in the OS, without the direct participation of a person. These quantities are called controlled variables. If a baking oven is considered as an OC, then the controlled variable will be the temperature, which must change according to a given program in accordance with the requirements of the technological process.

Fundamental Principles of Management

It is customary to distinguish three fundamental principles of management: open-loop principle, compensation principle, feedback principle.

Compensation principle

If the disturbing factor distorts the output value to unacceptable limits, then apply compensation principle(Fig. 6, KU - corrective device).

Let be y about- the value of the output quantity, which is required to be provided according to the program. In fact, due to the perturbation f, the output registers the value y. Value e \u003d y o - y called deviation from the set value. If somehow it is possible to measure the value f, then the control action can be corrected u at the input of the op-amp, summing the CU signal with a corrective action proportional to the disturbance f and offset its effect.

Examples of compensation systems: a bimetallic pendulum in a clock, a compensation winding of a DC machine, etc. In Fig. 6, there is a thermal resistance in the NE circuit R t , the value of which varies depending on temperature fluctuations environment, adjusting the voltage on the NO.

The virtue of the principle of compensation: quick response to disturbances. It is more accurate than the open loop principle. Flaw: the impossibility of taking into account all possible perturbations in this way.

Feedback principle

The most widely used in technology feedback principle(Fig. 7). Here, the control variable is corrected depending on the output value y(t). And it doesn't matter what perturbations act on the OS. If the value y(t) deviates from the required, then the signal is corrected u(t) to reduce this deviation. The connection between the output of an op-amp and its input is called main feedback (OS).

In a particular case (Fig. 8), the memory generates the required value of the output value y o (t), which is compared with the actual value at the output of the ACS y(t). Deviation e = y o -y from the output of the comparing device is fed to the input regulator P, which combines UU, UO, ChE. If e 0, then the controller generates the control action u(t), acting until equality is ensured e = 0, or y = y o. Since the difference of signals is applied to the regulator, such feedback is called negative, Unlike positive feedback when the signals are added.

Such a control in the deviation function is called regulation, and such an ACS is called automatic control system(SAR). So, Fig. 9 shows a simplified diagram of the ACS of a baking oven. The role of the memory here is performed by a potentiometer, the voltage on which U h is compared with the voltage on the thermocouple U m. Their difference U through the amplifier it is fed to the executive engine of the ID, which regulates the position of the rheostat engine in the NO circuit through the gearbox. The presence of an amplifier indicates that this ATS is indirect control system, since the energy for control functions is taken from external power sources, in contrast to direct control systems, in which energy is taken directly from the OS, as, for example, in the ACS of the water level in the tank (Fig. 10).

The disadvantage of the inverse principle connection is the inertia of the system. Therefore, it is often used combination of this principle with the principle of compensation, which allows you to combine the advantages of both principles: the speed of response to a disturbance of the compensation principle and the accuracy of regulation, regardless of the nature of the disturbances of the feedback principle.

Questions

What is called management?
What is called automatic control?
What is an automatic control system?
What is the main task of automatic control?
What is a control object?
What is a controlled variable?
What is the governing body?
What is a sensitive element?
What are input and output quantities?
What is a control action?
What is called indignation?
What is called deviation from a given value?
What is a control device?
What is a master device?
What is a functional diagram and what does it consist of?
What is the difference between a signal and a physical quantity?
What is the essence of the principle of open control?
What is the principle of compensation?
What is the essence of the feedback principle?
List the advantages and disadvantages of management principles?
What special case of control is called regulation?
What is the difference between direct and indirect systems?

The main types of ACS

Depending on the principle and law of the functioning of the memory that sets the program for changing the output value, the main types of ACS are distinguished: stabilization systems, software, tracking And self-tuning systems, among which are extreme, optimal And adaptive systems.

IN stabilization systems(Fig.9,10) provides a constant value of the controlled variable for all types of disturbances, i.e. y(t) = const. The memory generates a reference signal with which the output value is compared. The memory, as a rule, allows setting the reference signal, which allows you to change the value of the output quantity at will.

IN software systems a change in the controlled value is provided in accordance with the program generated by the memory. A cam mechanism, a punched tape or magnetic tape reader, etc. can be used as a memory. Clockwork toys, tape recorders, players, etc. can be attributed to this type of self-propelled guns. Distinguish systems with time program(for example, Fig. 1), providing y = f(t), And systems with a spatial program, in which y = f(x), used where it is important to obtain the required trajectory in space at the output of the ACS, for example, in a copy machine (Fig. 11), the law of motion in time does not play a role here.

tracking systems differ from software programs only in that the program y = f(t) or y = f(x) unknown in advance. A device that monitors the change of some external parameter acts as a memory. These changes will determine the changes in the output value of the ACS. For example, a robot hand that mimics the movements of a human hand.

All three considered types of ACS can be built according to any of the three fundamental principles of control. They are characterized by the requirement that the output value coincide with some prescribed value at the ACS input, which itself can change. That is, at any moment in time, the required value of the output quantity is uniquely determined.

IN self-tuning systems The memory is looking for such a value of the controlled variable, which in some sense is optimal.

So in extreme systems(Fig. 12) it is required that the output value always takes an extreme value from all possible ones, which is not predetermined and can change unpredictably. To find it, the system performs small trial movements and analyzes the response of the output value to these trials. After that, a control action is generated that brings the output value closer to the extreme value. The process is repeated continuously. Since the ACS data continuously evaluates the output parameter, they are performed only in accordance with the third control principle: the feedback principle.

Optimal Systems are a more complex version of extremal systems. Here, as a rule, complex processing of information about the nature of the change in output values and disturbances, about the nature of the influence of control actions on output values occurs, theoretical information, information of a heuristic nature, etc. can be involved. Therefore, the main difference between extreme systems is the presence of computers. These systems can operate according to any of the three fundamental principles of control.

IN adaptive systems it is possible to automatically reconfigure parameters or change circuit diagram ACS in order to adapt to changing external conditions. Accordingly, there are self-tuning And self-organizing adaptive systems.

All types of ACS ensure that the output value matches the required value. The only difference is in the program for changing the required value. Therefore, the foundations of TAU are built on the analysis of the simplest systems: stabilization systems. Having learned to analyze the dynamic properties of ACS, we will take into account all the features of more complex types of ACS.

Static characteristics

The ACS operating mode, in which the controlled variable and all intermediate values do not change in time, is called established, or static mode. Any link and ACS as a whole in this mode is described equations of statics kind y = F(u,f) in which there is no time t. The corresponding graphs are called static characteristics. The static characteristic of a link with one input u can be represented by a curve y = F(u)(Fig. 13). If the link has a second perturbation input f, then the static characteristic is given by the family of curves y = F(u) at different values f, or y = F(f) at various u.

So an example of one of the functional links of the water control system in the tank (see above) is a conventional lever (Fig. 14). The equation of statics for it has the form y = Ku. It can be represented as a link whose function is to amplify (or attenuate) the input signal in K once. Coefficient K = y/u, equal to the ratio of the output value to the input is called gain link. When the input and output quantities are different nature, he is called transmission ratio.

The static characteristic of this link has the form of a straight line segment with a slope a = arctg(L 2 /L 1) = arctg(K)(fig.15). Links with linear static characteristics are called linear. The static characteristics of real links are, as a rule, non-linear. Such links are called non-linear. They are characterized by the dependence of the transmission coefficient on the magnitude of the input signal: K = y/ u const.

For example, the static characteristic of a saturated DC generator is shown in Fig. 16. Usually, a non-linear characteristic cannot be expressed by any mathematical relationship and it has to be specified in a table or graph.

Knowing the static characteristics of individual links, it is possible to construct a static characteristic of the ACS (Fig. 17, 18). If all links of the ACS are linear, then the ACS has a linear static characteristic and is called linear. If at least one link is non-linear, then ACS nonlinear.

Links for which you can set a static characteristic in the form of a rigid functional dependence of the output value on the input are called static. If there is no such connection and each value of the input value corresponds to a set of values of the output value, then such a link is called astatic. Depicting its static characteristics is meaningless. An example of an astatic link is a motor, the input value of which is the voltage U, and the output - the angle of rotation of the shaft, the value of which at U = const can take any value. The output value of the astatic link, even in steady state, is a function of time.

Questions

list and give brief description main types of ACS?
What is called the static mode of the ACS?
What is called the static characteristics of ACS?
What is called the equation of statics of ACS?
What is called the transfer coefficient, what is the difference from the gain?
What is the difference between non-linear links and linear ones?
How to build a static characteristic of several links?
What is the difference between astatic links and static ones?
What is the difference between astatic regulation and static regulation?
How to make static ATS astatic?
What is called the static error of the regulator, how to reduce it?
What is SAR statism?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of static and astatic regulation?

3.1. Dynamic mode of ACS.
Equation of dynamics

The steady state is not typical for ACS. Usually, the controlled process is affected by various perturbations that deviate the controlled parameter from a given value. The process of establishing the desired value of the controlled variable is called regulation. Due to the inertia of the links, regulation cannot be carried out instantly.

Let us consider an automatic control system, which is in a steady state, characterized by the value of the output quantity y=yo. Let at the moment t = 0 any disturbing factor acted on the object, deviating the value of the controlled variable. After some time, the regulator will return the ACS to its original state (taking into account the static accuracy) (Fig. 24). If the regulated value changes in time according to an aperiodic law, then the regulation process is called aperiodic.

With sharp disturbances, it is possible oscillatory damped process (Fig. 25a). There is also such a possibility that after some time T p undamped oscillations of the regulated value will be established in the system - undamped oscillatory process (Fig. 25b). The last view - divergent oscillatory process (Fig. 25c).

Thus, the main mode of operation of the ACS is considered dynamic mode, characterized by the flow in it transients. That's why the second main task in the development of ACS is the analysis of the dynamic modes of operation of ACS.

The behavior of the ACS or any of its links in dynamic modes is described dynamics equation y(t) = F(u,f,t), which describes the change in values over time. As a rule, this is a differential equation or a system of differential equations. That's why the main method for studying ACS in dynamic modes is the method of solving differential equations. The order of differential equations can be quite high, that is, both the input and output quantities themselves are dependent on the dependence u(t), f(t), y(t), and the rate of their change, acceleration, etc. Therefore, the equation of dynamics in general form can be written as follows:

F(y, y', y”,..., y (n) , u, u', u”,..., u (m) , f, f ', f ”,..., f ( k)) = 0.

Transmission function

In TAU, the operator form of writing differential equations is often used. In this case, the concept of a differential operator is introduced p = d/dt so, dy/dt = py, but p n = d n /dt n. This is just another notation for the operation of differentiation. The integration operation inverse to differentiation is written as 1/p. In operator form, the original differential equation is written as an algebraic one:

aop (n) y + a 1 p (n-1) y + ... + any = (aop (n) + a 1 p (n-1) + ... + an)y = (bop (m) + b 1 p (m-1) + ... + bm)u

This form of notation should not be confused with operational calculus, if only because time functions are directly used here y(t), u(t) (originals), not their Images Y(p), U(p) obtained from the originals using the Laplace transform formula. At the same time, under zero initial conditions, up to notation, the entries are indeed very similar. This similarity lies in the nature of differential equations. Therefore, some rules of operational calculus are applicable to the operator form of the equation of dynamics. So operator p can be considered as a factor without the right to permutation, that is py yp. It can be taken out of brackets, etc.

Therefore, the equation of dynamics can also be written in the form:

Differential operator W(p) called transfer function. It determines the ratio of the output value of the link to the input at each moment of time: W(p) = y(t)/u(t), which is why it is also called dynamic gain. in steady state d/dt = 0, i.e p = 0, so the transfer function turns into the link transfer coefficient K = b m / a n.

Transfer function denominator D(p) = a o p n + a 1 p n - 1 + a 2 p n - 2 + ... + a n called characteristic polynomial. Its roots, i.e. the values of p for which the denominator D(p) goes to zero and W(p) tends to infinity is called transfer function poles.

Numerator K(p) = b o p m + b 1 p m - 1 + ... + b m called operator gain. Its roots, which K(p) = 0 And W(p) = 0, are called transfer function zeros.

An ACS link with a known transfer function is called dynamic link. It is represented by a rectangle, inside which the expression of the transfer function is written. That is, this is an ordinary functional link, the function of which is given by the mathematical dependence of the output value on the input value in dynamic mode. For a link with two inputs and one output, two transfer functions must be written for each of the inputs. The transfer function is the main characteristic of the link in dynamic mode, from which all other characteristics can be obtained. It is determined only by the system parameters and does not depend on the input and output values. For example, one of the dynamic links is the integrator. Its transfer function W and (p) = 1/p. The ACS scheme, composed of dynamic links, is called structural.

Questions

What ACS mode is called dynamic?
What is called regulation?
name possible types transient processes in ACS. Which of them are acceptable for the normal operation of the ACS?
What is called the equation of dynamics? What is its appearance?
How to conduct a theoretical study of the dynamics of ACS?
What is called linearization?
What is the geometric meaning of linearization?
What is the mathematical justification for linearization?
Why is the equation of ACS dynamics called the equation in deviations?
Is the principle of superposition valid for the ACS dynamics equation? Why?
How can a link with two or more inputs be represented by a circuit consisting of links with one input?
Write down the linearized dynamics equation in the usual and operator forms?
What is the meaning and what properties does the differential operator p have?
What is the transfer function of a link?
Write a linearized dynamics equation using a transfer function. Is this entry valid for nonzero initial conditions? Why?
Write an expression for the link transfer function according to the known linearized dynamics equation: (0.1p + 1)py(t) = 100u(t).
What is the dynamic gain of a link?
What is the characteristic polynomial of a link?
What are the zeros and poles of a transfer function?
What is a dynamic link?
What is called the structural diagram of the ACS?
What is called elementary and typical dynamic links?
How can a complex transfer function be decomposed into transfer functions of typical links?

4.1. Equivalent transformations of block diagrams

The block diagram of the ACS in the simplest case is built from elementary dynamic links. But several elementary links can be replaced by one link with a complex transfer function. For this, there are rules for the equivalent transformation of block diagrams. Let's consider possible ways of transformations.

1. serial connection(Fig. 28) - the output value of the previous link is fed to the input of the next one. In this case, you can write:

y 1 = W 1 y o ; y 2 \u003d W 2 y 1; ...; y n = W n y n - 1 =>

y n \u003d W 1 W 2 ..... W n .y o \u003d W eq y o,

where .

That is, a chain of series-connected links is converted into an equivalent link with a transfer function equal to the product of the transfer functions of individual links.

2. Parallel - consonant compound(Fig. 29) - the same signal is applied to the input of each link, and the output signals are added. Then:

y \u003d y 1 + y 2 + ... + y n \u003d (W 1 + W 2 + ... + W3) y o \u003d W eq y o,

where .

That is, a chain of links connected in parallel - according to, is converted into a link with a transfer function equal to the sum of the transfer functions of individual links.

3. Parallel - back connection(Fig. 30a) - the link is covered by positive or negative feedback. The section of the circuit along which the signal goes in the opposite direction with respect to the system as a whole (that is, from output to input) is called feedback loop with transfer function W os. In this case, for a negative OS:

y = W p u; y 1 = W os y; u = y o - y 1 ,

Consequently

y = W p y o - W p y 1 = W p y o - W p W oc y = >

y(1 + W p W oc) = W p y o = > y = W eq y o ,

where .

Similarly: - for positive OS.

If Woc = 1, then the feedback is called unit (Fig. 30b), then W equiv \u003d W p / (1 ± W p).

A closed system is called single-loop, if when it is opened at any point, a chain of series-connected elements is obtained (Fig. 31a). The section of the chain, consisting of links connected in series, connecting the point of application of the input signal with the point of removal of the output signal is called straight circuit (Fig. 31b, transfer function of the direct circuit W p \u003d Wo W 1 W 2). A chain of series-connected links included in a closed circuit is called open circuit(Fig. 46c, open circuit transfer function W p = W 1 W 2 W 3 W 4). Based on the above methods of equivalent transformation of block diagrams, a single-loop system can be represented by one link with a transfer function: W equiv \u003d W p / (1 ± W p)- the transfer function of a single-circuit closed system with negative feedback is equal to the transfer function of the forward circuit divided by one plus the transfer function of the open circuit. For a positive OS, the denominator has a minus sign. If you change the point of removal of the output signal, then the form of the direct circuit changes. So, if we consider the output signal y 1 at the link output W 1, then W p = Wo W 1. The expression for the open circuit transfer function is independent of the point at which the output signal is taken.

Closed systems are single-loop And multiloop(Fig. 32). To find the equivalent transfer function for a given circuit, you must first transform individual sections.

If a multi-loop system has cross links(Fig. 33), then additional rules are needed to calculate the equivalent transfer function:

4. When transferring the adder through a link along the signal path, it is necessary to add a link with the transfer function of the link through which the adder is transferred. If the adder is transferred against the signal path, then a link with a transfer function is added, the inverse transfer function of the link through which we transfer the adder (Fig. 34).

So, the signal is taken from the output of the system in Fig. 34a

y 2 = (f + y o W 1)W 2 .

The same signal should be taken from the outputs of the systems in Fig. 34b:

y 2 \u003d fW 2 + y o W 1 W 2 \u003d (f + y o W 1)W 2,

and in Fig.34c:

y 2 = (f(1/W 1) + y o)W 1 W 2 = (f + y o W 1)W 2 .

With such transformations, nonequivalent sections of the communication line may appear (they are shaded in the figures).

5. When transferring a node through a link along the signal path, a link is added with a transfer function, the inverse transfer function of the link through which we transfer the node. If the node is transferred against the signal path, then a link is added with the transfer function of the link through which the node is transferred (Fig. 35). So, the signal is taken from the output of the system in Fig. 35a

y 1 = y o W 1 .

The same signal is taken from the outputs of Fig. 35b:

y 1 \u003d y o W 1 W 2 / W 2 \u003d y o W 1

y 1 = y o W 1 .

6. Mutual permutations of nodes and adders are possible: nodes can be interchanged (Fig. 36a); adders can also be interchanged (Fig. 36b); when transferring the node through the adder, it is necessary to add a comparing element (Fig. 36c: y \u003d y 1 + f 1 \u003d\u003e y 1 \u003d y - f 1) or adder (Fig. 36d: y = y1 + f1).

In all cases of transfer of elements of the block diagram, there are non-equivalent regions communication lines, so you need to be careful in places where the output signal is picked up.

With equivalent transformations of the same block diagram, different transfer functions of the system can be obtained for different inputs and outputs. So in Fig. 48 there are two inputs: by control action u and outrage f with one exit y. Such a circuit can be converted to one link with two transfer functions Wuy And W fy .

Questions

List typical schemes for connecting ACS links?
How to convert a chain of serially connected links to a single link?
How to convert a chain of parallel connected links to a single link?
How to convert feedback to one link?
What is called a direct chain of ACS?
What is an open circuit ACS?
How to transfer the adder through the link in the direction and against the movement of the signal?
How to move the node through the link along and against the signal movement?
How to transfer a node through a node in the direction and against the movement of the signal?
How to transfer the adder through the adder in the direction and against the movement of the signal?
How to transfer the node through the adder and the adder through the node along and against the signal movement?
What is called non-equivalent sections of communication lines in block diagrams?
What is the purpose of the DC generator voltage ATS?

Differentiator link

There are ideal and real differentiating links. Dynamic equation of an ideal link: y(t) = , or y=kpu. Here, the output quantity is proportional to the rate of change of the input quantity. Transmission function: W(p) = kp. At k = 1 the link performs a pure differentiation W(p) = p. Transient response: h(t) = k 1’(t) = d(t).

An ideal differentiating link cannot be realized, since the magnitude of the surge in the output value when a single step action is applied to the input is always limited. In practice, real differentiating links are used that perform approximate differentiation of the input signal.

His equation: Tpy + y = kTpu.

Transmission function: W(p) =.

At small T the link can be considered as an ideal differentiating one. The transient response can be derived using the Heaviside formula:

here p 1 = - 1/T- root of the characteristic equation D(p) = Tp + 1 = 0; Besides, D'(p 1) = T.

When a single step action is applied to the input, the output value is limited in magnitude and stretched in time (Fig. 47). According to the transient response, which has the form of an exponential, it is possible to determine the transfer coefficient k and time constant T. Examples of such links can be a four-terminal network of resistance and capacitance or resistance and inductance, a damper, etc. Differentiating links are the main tool used to improve the dynamic properties of ACS.

In addition to those considered, there are a number of links, which we will not dwell on in detail. These include the ideal forcing link ( W(p) = Tp + 1, practically unrealizable), the real forcing link (W(p) =, at T1 >> T2), retarded link ( W(p) = e - pT), which reproduces the input action with a delay in time, and others.

Questions

What is called and what do you know about typical input actions? What are they needed for?
What is a transition characteristic?
What is an impulse response?
What is called temporal characteristics?
What is the Heaviside formula for?
How to get a transient curve with a complex form of input action, if the transient response of the link is known?
What is called an inertialess link, its dynamic equation, transfer function, type of transient response?
What is called an integrating link, its dynamic equation, transfer function, type of transient response?
What is called an aperiodic link, its dynamics equation, transfer function, type of transient response?
What is called an oscillatory link, its dynamic equation, transfer function, type of transient response?

LACH: L() = 20lgk.

Some frequency responses are shown in Fig.50. The link passes all frequencies equally with an increase in amplitude by k times and without phase shift.

Integrating link

Transmission function:

Consider the special case when k = 1, i.e.

AFC: W(j) = .

VCH: P() = 0.

Since the emergence of the first civilizations of Mesopotamia, Ancient China, Egypt, the basic principles of management have been characterized by a despotic form of leadership by subordinates. Thus, the system of state enforcement served as a necessary mechanism for the maintenance of irrigation systems. Which allowed harvesting, practically, all year round regardless of the favorable weather conditions. Which ultimately contributed to the prosperity of the country and all its citizens.

The ancient Greeks were among the very first to exalt management as a special art. In turn, the administrative structure of the Roman Empire is the apotheosis of the administrative thought of that time, along with the complex structure of the bureaucracy and the decision-making procedure.

In parallel with the formation of new types of statehood and modes of production, management was constantly subjected to structural changes, but only at the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. took shape as a separate science, functioning according to certain principles.

Classification of modern management principles!

The modern concept of management was developed by Frederic Taylor and Henri Fayol at the beginning of the last century. First, betrayed the management of scientific justification. The second, brought out the basic principles of company management at the highest level.

In subsequent decades, management theory was supplemented by the works of J. Mooney, A. Reilly and L. Gyulik. Their attention was focused on the fundamental elements of management - planning, organization, motivation, control.

Ultimately, this made it possible to classify the principles of management in three areas:

Universal principles for building an organization
Principles describing the functional component of management
Rules Including Symbiosis commercial management and state regulation.

Putting into practice the basic principles of management!

Principle 1: Planning!

In anticipation of the implementation of a new project, planning automatically becomes a top priority on the agenda of the company's management and related management bodies: financial, marketing and technical departments.

During planning, the management structures of the organization are engaged in setting strategic, medium-term and daily goals. The company's management takes into account the statistical indicators of the priority market segment, financial opportunities and available resources, innovative developments, as well as mechanisms for promoting and marketing products.
Together, all these factors, taking into account the competitive environment, contribute to the formulation of a development strategy by an enterprise, without which it is impossible to pursue a targeted policy.

Principle 2: Leadership!

The work of the organization is impossible without a clear hierarchy of governing bodies. Managers are required to act as a link between workers, knowledge departments and consumers, whose main goal is to achieve the company's goals.

In full, the functions of leaders are reduced to the following characteristics:

Timely decision-making in relation to subordinates.
Search and application of mechanisms to meet the needs of owners, consumers, suppliers, as well as other entities involved in the company's activities.
Combination of centralized and decentralized management, a method of ensuring freedom of action, but with regulated rules of accountability.
Employee motivation.
Training of personnel with the right to improve qualifications.
Managing relationships within the team.
Setting goals and objectives of the company with their subsequent implementation.

Principle 3: Focus on the consumer!

The basic principles of management, one way or another, are focused on the successful functioning of the organization. However, only customers have a direct influence on the company, which must consistently cater to the current and anticipate future needs of customers.

In this direction, the following work needs to be done:

Analyze consumer preferences - quality, packaging and price of goods.
Respond to changes in customer satisfaction.
Practice feedback.
Meet the needs of society in relation to the services provided.

Principle 4: Engage and motivate employees!

Of course, the team of a commercial organization is an organism that needs to be managed and additionally stimulated in order to use the knowledge, skills and experience of each of its members for the benefit.

When involving employees, it is necessary to initiate the transfer of responsibility for solving everyday tasks to them. Thus, this will allow the staff to actively improve, take the initiative, be proud of their own work and, in the end, have fun. Thus, the subordinates will show a desire for professional growth for the sake of the development of the company.

Principle 5: an integrated approach to the management of the organization!

An integrated approach to management considers management as a system of complementary processes. This allows you to structure the management in fragments for effective decision making under certain circumstances. It also provides awareness of the interdependence of a particular management decision and contributes to the continuous improvement of the company's management.

First of all, an integrated approach is necessary for operational regulation that can explain the causes of the problem and resolve them in a timely manner.

Principle 6: Improvement is a must!

A successful organization cannot hold a position or claim leadership in a particular market segment without a formulated improvement strategy. And this applies both to the goods and services produced, and to each person involved in the company.

The administrative apparatus needs to be improved in order to find new, more effective ways management.
Staff - to gain experience, improve skills.
The technical department is to practice innovation in order to bring the production process to a qualitatively new level.
Goods and services - meet the variables of consumer demand.

Principle 7: Rational Decision Making!

As well as the basic principles of management, managerial decision-making should be rationally justified and appropriate to the situation.

In order for the manager to be able to apply this principle, it is necessary:

Collect and verify information related to the problem posed.
Analyze the potential impact of a particular management method.
Making a decision based on the analysis performed, adjusted for experience.

Principle 8: Control!

Control within the framework of the organization's management is carried out in a continuous and final form.

Monitoring the implementation of the project provides an opportunity to make adjustments depending on the influence of unforeseen factors, as well as the timing of the implementation of the goals.

The final control is provided to evaluate the work done in a specific time period. It allows you to compare the planned goals and objectives of the enterprise to immediate results. Which, in turn, will be taken into account when making changes to the organization's development strategy.

Conclusion

The basic principles of management in the theoretical plane act as universal rules for managing an enterprise, providing algorithms for resolving planned and unforeseen tasks for lower, middle and top managers. And the practical component of the principles of management is rational decision-making and ensuring the most efficient production process.

Basic principles of management. The principle of consistency and complexity. Management principles based on the allocation of different schools. Centralized and decentralized forms of government.

Management principles

Introduction

Ideas about the role and place of managing an organization, about the content of management activities, methods and principles for its implementation have repeatedly undergone significant changes since management began to be considered as a special type of activity carried out in an organization. Views on management have evolved as social relations have developed, business has changed, production technology has improved, new means of communication and information processing have appeared.

The practice of management has changed - the doctrine of management has also changed. However, managerial thought did not play the role of passively following the practice of management. Moreover, it was precisely the new ideas in the field of management put forward and formulated by the leading minds of managerial thought, as well as new approaches to the implementation of management, that marked the milestones, starting from which there were broad transformations in management practice. In my work, I will consider only those approaches and teachings about management that are widely known and accepted in most countries of the world.

The main components of any organization are tasks, people and management. For the successful existence of the organization, it is necessary to maintain a certain balance between these three processes. And the key role in maintaining this balance belongs to management.

The management system is based on developed and substantiated methods and principles. What are the principles of management and is it possible to modern production do without them? After all, in the past, not knowing about any principles, people successfully conducted their economic activities. Here it should be noted that in their activities people have always been guided by certain principles, perhaps simplified ones.

In the relatively recent past, there was no complex system of economic relations due to the development of specialization and cooperation of labor and scientific and technological progress. IN modern conditions Without relying on thoroughly substantiated and practice-tested management principles, it is impossible to ensure the effective development of an enterprise and the economy as a whole.

The main principles determine the philosophy and strategy of managing the enterprise and its links. To a certain extent, they are designed to serve as an advertisement for the enterprise. Based on the developed principles, the goals of the enterprise are adjusted, priorities are specified, its policy is formulated, methods are developed. The implementation of the principles, goals, priorities and policies of enterprises is carried out with the help of appropriate working methods, instructions, regulations and standards.

Social production relations determine the role and place of each worker in the process of production, exchange, distribution and consumption. The final result, the result of the activity of a huge team, depends on the quality and efficiency of the work of each of them.

Thus, the principles of management reflect an objective reality that exists outside and independently of human consciousness, in other words, they are objective. At the same time, each of the principles is an idea, that is, a subjective construction, a subjective construction that every leader mentally performs at the level of his knowledge of general and professional culture. Since the principles belong to the subject, they have a subjective character. The more the reflection of the principle in the mind of a person approaches the law, the more accurate the knowledge, the more effective the activity of the leader in the field of management.

1. Basic principles of management

Management principles are among the most important categories of management. They are understood as the main fundamental ideas, ideas about management activities, arising directly from the laws and patterns of management.

Classification of management principles

In the literature there is no single approach to the classification of management principles, there is no consensus on the content of the basic principles of management. Some of the proclaimed principles, in essence, are the rules of conduct for managers or governing bodies, some follow from the basic principles, that is, they are derivatives.

The principles of management are very diverse. The classification of principles should be based on the reflection by each of the selected principles of various aspects of management relations. The principles must be consistent with both partial and the overall goal of improving production efficiency, socio-economic development. The principles of control serve not only to construct speculative schemes. They quite rigidly determine the nature of the links in the system, the structure of the governing bodies, the adoption and implementation of managerial decisions.

The main principles of management include:

1) scientific character;

2) consistency and complexity;

3) unity of command and collegiality;

4) democratic centralism;

5) a combination of sectoral and territorial approach in management.

Scientific principle

This principle requires the construction of a management system and its activities on strictly scientific grounds. Like any principle that reflects development, it must have internal inconsistency, since

Internal inconsistency forms an internal logic, creates an internal impulse for development. One of the contradictions of the scientific principle is the contradiction between theory and practice. It requires the use of aggressive scientific ideas (the results of scientific knowledge - from the phenomenon to the essence, from the essence of the first kind, less deep, to the essence of the second kind, deeper, etc., endlessly). However, the need to organize the management process in specific conditions, to solve specific problems requires time limitation of the process of cognition. This contradiction is resolved by actively studying the scientific problems of managing multi-purpose, complex teams, and maximizing the use of computer technology. Another important contradiction of the scientific principle is the unity and contradiction of the objective and the subjective. This contradiction is universal and also applies to all other principles of management. What is objective in principle of scientific character follows from the objective nature of the laws of control on which the principles of control are based. The subjective in the implementation of the principles of management is inevitable, since the principles of management are realized only through the consciousness, will and aspirations of a person. Thus, the implemented principle is inevitably subjective. The deviation of the process of cognition from objective logic (subjectivism) arises and manifests itself to a greater extent, the more the consciousness of leaders deviates from the objective logic of the development of nature, society and thinking. The higher the level of general culture and professionalism of the leader, the less the possibility of manifestation of subjectivism. The need to comply with the principle of scientificity in management requires the involvement of the entire spectrum of modern knowledge, their careful synthesis, and above all, the complex of human sciences. At the same time, it is necessary to apply advanced methods of system analysis in the field of economic sciences, philosophy, psychology, ethics, aesthetics, technical and technological sciences of ecology and other areas.

The principle of consistency and complexity

This principle requires both an integrated and a systematic approach to management. Consistency means the need to use elements of the theory of large systems, system analysis in each management decision. Complexity in management means the need for comprehensive coverage of the entire managed system, taking into account all parties, all directions, all properties. For example, it can be taking into account all the features of the structure of the managed team: age, ethnic, confessional, professional, general cultural, etc. Thus, consistency means attempts to structure problems and solutions vertically, and complexity means expanding them horizontally. Therefore, consistency tends more towards vertical, subordination links, and complexity - towards horizontal, coordination links. The abilities of managers in this case can differ significantly, since this imposes somewhat different requirements on the mindset, its analytical and synthetic functions.

The principle of unity of command in management and collegiality in making decisions

Any decision made should be developed collegially (or collectively). This means the comprehensiveness (complexity) of its development, taking into account the opinions of many experts on various issues. The decision taken collectively (collectively) is put into practice under the personal responsibility of the head of the company (board of directors, shareholders, etc.). For each official, the exact responsibility for the performance of certain and precisely defined work is established. So, in a company, vice presidents for science, production, marketing and other areas are fully responsible for the corresponding sector of the company's activities. The problem lies in the fact that qualitatively new tasks may arise for any firm, the solution of which is not provided for by the regulation. In this case, not only the manager must determine to whom the solution of certain tasks and the performance of certain works can be addressed, but also the subordinates must show reasonable initiative.

The principle of democratic centralism

This principle is one of the most important and means the need for a reasonable, rational combination of centralized and decentralized principles in management. At the state level, this is the relationship between the center and the regions; at the enterprise level, it is the relationship between rights and responsibilities between the manager and the team. The inconsistency of the principle of democratic centralism should be considered as the existence, development, mutual transition of the polar opposites of democracy and centralism. With insufficiently favorable socio-economic conditions and rigidity of management, centralism prevails. It is necessary in emergency conditions (warfare, economic or political crisis, ethnic tension, violation of morality and ethics by state leaders). Democracy in management is the higher, the higher the level of qualification of workers, the more creative the content of labor is, the more stable and evolutionary is the development of society. The most preferable in the management of the socio-economic system is the balance between centralism and democracy. However, in practice one often prevails over the other. At the level of individual economic entities - enterprises, banks, exchanges, the principle of democratic centralism determines not only the degree of independence of branches, branches, subsidiaries, but also the degree of their responsibility for the actions performed. Further, the principle of democratic centralism determines the degree of independence and responsibility of each official to his leader. Thus, the principle of democratic centralism vertically permeates all power management structures.

The principle of unity of sectoral and territorial management

The development of society is closely connected with the progress of sectoral and territorial administration. Sectoral management characterizes the need to deepen specializations and increase the concentration of production. Territorial management proceeds from other targets. The problems of the most rational distribution and development of productive forces require taking into account the requirements of ecology, the efficiency of using the labor force, employment of the population, the development of social infrastructure, the conformity of the nature of production with the characteristics of ethnic groups, and the satisfaction of the material and spiritual needs of society. And these are all regional problems. Any entrepreneur must draw for himself the appropriate conclusions arising from the operation of the principle of unity of sectoral and territorial management. The interests of the company he represents should be closely linked with the interests of the local authorities of the inhabitants of the region where he is going to show his business activity - to build a branch of the enterprise, store and sell products, etc. Local authorities and the population should be his active dream books, knowing what benefits for the region will follow the vigorous activity of certain firms.

2. Principles of management based on the allocation of various schools

The development of management as a scientific discipline was not a series of successive steps forward. Rather, it was several approaches that often overlapped. The objects of control are both equipment and people. Consequently, advances in management theory have always depended on advances in other management-related fields such as mathematics, engineering, psychology, sociology, and anthropology. As these areas of knowledge have developed, management researchers, theorists and practitioners have learned more and more about the factors that influence organizational success. This knowledge helped specialists to understand why some of the earlier theories sometimes did not withstand the test of practice, and to find new approaches to management.

At the same time, the world was becoming the scene of rapid change. Scientific and technological innovations became more frequent and significant, and governments began to become more determined in their attitude to business. These and other factors have made representatives of managerial thought more aware of the existence of forces external to the organization. New approaches have been developed for this purpose.

To date, four major approaches are known that have made a significant contribution to the development of the theory and practice of management. The approach from the standpoint of identifying different schools in management actually includes four different approaches. Here management is considered from three different points of view. These are schools scientific management, administrative management, human relations and behavioral sciences.

In the first half of the twentieth century, four distinct schools of managerial thought developed. Chronologically they can be listed in the following order:

1. School of scientific management;

2. Administrative school;

3. School of psychology and human relations.

The most staunch adherents of each of these directions believed at one time that they had managed to find the key to the most effective achievement of the goals of the organization. More recent research and unsuccessful attempts to apply the theoretical findings of schools in practice have shown that many answers to management questions were only partially correct in limited situations. And yet, each of these schools has made significant and tangible contributions to the field. Even the most progressive modern organizations still use certain concepts and techniques that have arisen within the framework of these schools. It should also be borne in mind that techniques that were successful in some situations and at a particular time are not always successful in others. And within one organization, elements of all approaches can be found.

2.1. School of Scientific Management (1885-1920)

The founder and main developer of scientific management ideas is Frederick Winslow Taylor. Unlike many professionals who create managerial theories Taylor was neither a research scientist nor a business school professor. He was a practitioner: first a worker, and then a manager. Starting as a worker, he worked his way through several levels of hierarchy and rose to the level of chief engineer in a steel company.

“Taylor's teaching is based on a mechanistic understanding of man, his place in the organization and the essence of his activity. Taylor set himself the task of increasing labor productivity and saw its solution in the rationalization of labor operations on the basis of the scientific organization of the worker's work. The starting point for the rationalization of labor for Taylor was the study of the task, which was supposed to provide information for constructing a rational set of operations to solve this problem. Taylor proceeded from the fact that workers are inherently lazy and do not want to work just like that. Therefore, he believed that rationalization, leading to an increase in profits, would be accepted by the worker only when his income also increased.

Taylor was an industrial engineer, so it was natural for him to look at controls as if they were machines. It should be noted that this approach was universal at that time. He believed that managers should think and workers should work. This led to the emergence of a large number of functional managers and in-depth specialization based on the operational division of labor.

Taylor's basic principles of scientific management are as follows:

1. Development of optimal methods for the implementation of work on the basis of a scientific study of the costs of time, movements, efforts, etc.;

2. Absolute adherence to the developed standards;

3. Selection, training and placement of workers for those jobs and tasks where they can give the greatest benefit;

4. Payment according to the results of labor (less results - less pay, great results - more pay);

5. The use of functional managers exercising control in specialized areas;

6. Maintaining friendly relations between workers and managers in order to enable the implementation of scientific management.

Scientific management is also closely related to the work of Frank and Lily Gilbreth and Henry Gantt. "These creators of the school of scientific management believed that by using observation, measurement, logic and analysis, many manual labor operations could be improved, achieving their more efficient performance." Scientific management did not neglect the human factor. An important contribution of this school was the systematic use of incentives to interest workers in increasing productivity and output. There was also the possibility of short breaks and inevitable breaks in production, so that the amount of time allocated to certain tasks was realistic and fairly established. This gave management the opportunity to set production quotas that were feasible and to pay extra to those who exceeded the minimum. The key element in this approach was that people who produced more were rewarded more. The authors of works on scientific management also recognized the importance of selecting people who were physically and intellectually suited to the work they were doing, they also emphasized the importance of training.

Scientific management has also advocated separating the managerial functions of thinking and planning from actually doing the work. Taylor and his contemporaries actually recognized that the job of management was a specialty, and that the organization as a whole would benefit if each group of workers focused on what they did best. This approach contrasted sharply with the old system in which workers planned their own work.

The concept of scientific management was a major watershed in which management became widely recognized as a field of scientific research in its own right.

2.2. Administrative school in management (1920 - 1950)

The authors who have written about scientific management have mainly devoted their research to what is called production management. They were engaged in improving efficiency at a level below the managerial level. With the advent of the administrative school, specialists began to constantly develop approaches to improving the management of the organization as a whole.

Taylor and Gilbreth began their careers as simple workers, which influenced their understanding of the management of the organization. In contrast, the authors, who are considered the founders of the school of administration, better known as the classical school, had direct experience as senior managers in big business. Consequently, their main concern was efficiency in the broader sense of the word - in relation to the work of the entire organization.

“The adherents of the classical school, like those who wrote about scientific management, did not care much about the social aspects of management. Their work was based more on personal observations than on scientific methodology.” Representatives of the classical school in management tried to look at organizations from a broad perspective, trying to define General characteristics and patterns of organization. And the goal of the classical school was to create universal principles management. This goal was based on the idea that following these principles would lead the organization to success. Defining the main functions of business, theorists - "classics" were sure that they could determine The best way dividing the organization into divisions or work groups. Such functions have traditionally been considered finance, marketing and production. Fayol's main contribution to management theory was that he viewed management as a universal process consisting of several interrelated functions such as planning and organization.

Henri Fayol (1841 - 1925) worked almost his entire adult life in a French coal processing company and iron ore. Fayol's focus was managerial activity, and he believed that his success as a manager was due to the fact that he correctly organized and carried out his work. Moreover, he believed that with the right organization of work, every manager can succeed. In a sense, Fayol had a similar approach to Taylor: he sought to find rules for rational activity. The peculiarity of Fayol's teaching was that he studied and described a special type of activity - management, which, in the form that Fayol did, no one had done before him.

Considering the organization as a single organism, Fayol believed that any business organization is characterized by the presence of certain types of activities, or six functions:

Technical activity (production);

Commercial activity (purchase, sale and exchange);

Financial activities (search and optimal use of capital);

Security activities (protection of people's property);

Accounting (activity on analysis, accounting, statistics);

Management (planning, organization, command, coordination and control).

Considering that managerial activities may differ depending on the size of the organization, the level in the managerial hierarchy, and so on, Fayol emphasized that at the same time they must necessarily include all five of these functions (planning, organization, management, coordination, control) .

Fayol also developed fourteen principles of management, which he followed in his practice and on which, as he believed, the success of management depends:

1. Division of labor(increases qualifications and the level of work performance).

Specialization is the natural order of things. The purpose of the division of labor is to do more and better work with the same effort. This is achieved by reducing the number of goals to which attention and effort must be directed.

2. Authority and responsibility(the right to give commands and be responsible for the results).

Authority is the right to give orders, and responsibility is its opposite. Where authority is given, responsibility arises.

3. Discipline(clear and clear understanding between workers and managers, based on respect for the rules and agreements that exist in the organization; mainly the result of the capabilities of management).

Discipline involves obedience and respect for the agreements reached between the firm and its employees. Establishing these agreements binding the firm and employees from which disciplinary formalities arise must remain one of the main tasks of industry leaders. Discipline also implies fair application of sanctions.

4. unity of command(order from only one leader and subordination to only one leader).

5. Unity of direction(one leader and a single plan for each set of actions to achieve some common goals).

Each group operating within the same goal must be united by a single plan and have one leader.

6. Subordination of personal interests to the general(the interests of one employee or group of employees should not prevail over the interests of the company or organization).

The manager must achieve by personal example and tough but fair management that the interests of individuals, groups and departments do not prevail over the interests of the organization as a whole.

7. Staff remuneration(pay should reflect the state of the organization and encourage people to work with dedication).

In order to ensure the loyalty and support of workers, they must receive a fair wage for their service.

8. Centralization(the level of centralization and decentralization should depend on the situation and be chosen in such a way as to give the best results).

Like the division of labor, centralization is the natural order of things. However, the appropriate degree of centralization will vary depending on specific conditions. Therefore, the question arises about the right proportion between centralization and decentralization. It is a problem of determining the measure that will provide the best possible results.

9. Scalar chain(a clear construction of chains of following commands from the leader to subordinates).

A scalar chain is a series of persons in leadership positions, starting from the person occupying the highest position in this chain, down to the bottom manager. It would be a mistake to abandon a hierarchical system without a definite need for it, but it would be an even greater mistake to maintain this hierarchy when it is detrimental to business interests.

10. Order(everyone should know their place in the organization).

11. Justice(workers should be treated fairly and kindly).

It is a combination of kindness and justice.

12. Workplace stability for staff(frames must be in a stable situation).

High employee turnover reduces the efficiency of the organization. A mediocre manager who holds on to a position is certainly preferable to an outstanding, talented manager who leaves quickly and does not hold on to his position.

13. Initiative(managers should encourage subordinates to come up with ideas).

Initiative means developing a plan and ensuring its successful implementation. This gives the organization strength and energy.

14. corporate spirit(it is necessary to create a spirit of unity and joint action, to develop a team form of work).

Union is strength. It is the result of staff harmony.

Considering the principles he proposed to be universal, Fayol nevertheless believed that the application of these principles in practice should be flexible and depend on the situation in which management is carried out. After Fayol, many researchers studied and theoretically described management activities and management functions. However, all of them were ultimately only followers who developed, supplemented and concretized his teaching.

2.3. School of Psychology and Human Relations (1930 - 1950)

“The school of scientific management and the classical school came into being when psychology was still in its infancy. Many in the early 20th century seriously questioned Freud's then new concept of the subconscious. Moreover, since those who were interested in psychology were rarely interested in management, the then meager knowledge of the human mind was not related to the problems of work. Consequently, although the authors of scientific management and the classical approach recognized the importance of the human factor, their discussions were limited to such aspects as fair pay, economic incentives and the establishment of formal functional relationships. The human relations movement was born in response to a failure to fully understand the human factor as a key element of organizational effectiveness. Since it arose as a reaction to the shortcomings of the classical approach, the school of human relations is sometimes called the neoclassical school.

The transfer of the center of gravity in management from tasks to people is the main distinguishing characteristic of the school of human relations, which originated in modern management in the 20-30s. The founder of this school is Elton Mayo (1880-1949). He made the main developments regarding this concept while being a professor at the School of Business at Harvard University. A fundamental step in the development of this concept was Mayo's participation in the so-called Hawthorne experiment. This study was carried out over several years in the 1920s and 1930s. at Western Electric Company. It is generally accepted that this was the largest empirical study ever conducted in the field of management.

At the beginning of the experiment, a group of research engineers set the task of determining the impact on labor productivity of workers of illumination, the duration of breaks, and a number of other factors that form working conditions. A group of six workers was selected, who were placed for observation in a special room and on which various experiments were carried out. The results of the experiments turned out to be astounding and inexplicable from the point of view of scientific management. It turned out that labor productivity remained above average and almost did not depend on changes in illumination and other studied factors. The scientists who participated in the study, led by Mayo, came to the conclusion that high productivity is due to the special relationships between people, their joint work. This study also showed that a person's behavior at work and the results of his work fundamentally depend on the social conditions in which he is at work, what kind of relationship workers have with each other, and also what kind of relationship exists between workers and managers. These conclusions were fundamentally different from the provisions of scientific management, because. the focus was shifted from the tasks, operations or functions performed by the worker, to the system of relationships, to the person, who was no longer considered as a machine, but as a social being. Unlike Taylor, Mayo did not believe that the worker was inherently lazy. On the contrary, he argued that if an appropriate relationship is created, a person will work with interest and enthusiasm. Mayo said that managers should trust the workers and focus on creating favorable relationships in the team.

The transfer of the center of gravity in management from tasks to a person gave rise to the development of various behavioral theories of management that develop or supplement the ideas of the school social systems. Walter Dill Scott (1869-1955), a lecturer at Northwestern University in Chicago, argued that managers should look at workers not only through the prism of their economic interests, but also social ones, in terms of public recognition of their merits, including them into groups.

The well-known management theorist Marie Parker Follet (1868-1933) believed that in order to manage successfully, a manager must abandon formal interactions with workers, be a leader recognized by workers, and not based on official authority. Her interpretation of management as “the art of achieving results through the actions of others” put flexibility and harmony in the relationship between managers and workers at the forefront. Follet believed that the manager should proceed from the situation and manage in accordance with what the situation dictates, and not with what is prescribed by the management function.

A huge contribution to the development of the behavioral direction in management was made by Abraham Maslow (1908-1970), who developed the theory of needs, which was later widely used in management, known as the "pyramid of needs". In accordance with the teachings of Maslow, a person has a complex structure of hierarchically located needs, and management in accordance with this should be carried out on the basis of identifying the needs of the worker and using appropriate methods of motivation.

“The specific opposition of scientific management and behavioral concepts in the form of their theoretical generalization was reflected in the X theory and the Y theory developed by Douglas MacGregor (1906-1964). According to this theory, there are two types of management, reflecting two types of views on workers. The following prerequisites are typical for an organization of type "X":

The average person has an inherited dislike of work and tries to avoid work;

Due to the unwillingness to work, most people can only be compelled by coercion, orders, controls and threats of punishment to carry out necessary actions and expend due effort necessary to achieve the organization's objectives;

The average person prefers to be controlled, tries not to take responsibility, has relatively low ambitions, and desires to be in a safe situation.

Theory "Y" has the following premises:

The expression of physical and emotional efforts at work is as natural for a person as during play or on vacation. The unwillingness to work is not a hereditary inherent trait of a person. A person may perceive work as a source of satisfaction or as a punishment, depending on the working conditions; external control and the threat of punishment are not the only means of inducing a person to act in order to achieve the organization's goals. People can exercise self-control and self-motivation to activities for the interests of the organization, if they have a sense of responsibility, obligations towards the organization;

Responsibility and obligations in relation to the goals of the organization depend on the remuneration received for the results of work. The most important reward is that which is associated with the satisfaction of needs for self-expression and self-actualization;

An ordinary person, brought up in a certain way, is not only ready to take responsibility, but even strives for it.

At the same time, in relation to the theory of "Y", McGregor emphasized that many people are willing to use their experience, knowledge and imagination in solving organizational problems. However, modern industrial society makes little use of the intellectual potential of an ordinary person.

McGregor concluded that "Y" type management is much more effective, and made a recommendation to managers that their task is to create conditions under which the worker, expending effort to achieve the goals of the organization, at the same time achieves his personal goals in the best possible way. .

"Undoubtedly, a huge contribution to the development of managerial thought was made by the German lawyer and sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920), who developed the theory of the bureaucratic construction of an organization and a management system in particular." If Taylor was looking for an answer to the question of how to make the worker work like a machine, then Weber was looking for an answer to the question of what needs to be done to make the whole organization work like a machine. Answer to this question Weber saw in the development of rules and procedures for behavior in any situation and the rights and obligations of each employee. Personality was missing from Weber's concept of organization. Procedures and rules determined all the main activities, the careers of employees and specific decisions and activities of management.

Weber believed that a bureaucratic system should provide speed, accuracy, order, certainty, continuity, and predictability. The main elements of building an organization that provide these qualities, according to Weber, should be the following:

Division of labor based on functional specialization;

Well-defined hierarchical distribution of power;

A system of rules and regulations that define the rights and obligations of employees;

A system of rules and procedures for behavior in specific situations;

Lack of a personal beginning in interpersonal relationships;

Admission to the organization based on the competence and needs of the organization;

Promotion within the organization based on the competence and broad knowledge of the organization that come with seniority;

Strategy for lifetime employment;

A clear career system that provides upward mobility for skilled workers;

Management of administrative activities consists in the development and establishment of thorough written instructions for intraorganizational actions.

3. Centralized and decentralized forms of government

The principles of management are general patterns, within which connections (relationships) between various structures (elements) are realized management system that are reflected in the formulation of practical control problems.

The main principle of management is the principle of optimal combination of centralization and decentralization in management. The problem of combining centralization and decentralization in management is the problem of distribution of powers to make specific decisions at each level of the managerial hierarchy, so I would like to consider them in more detail. The best option is the approach when decisions related to the development of policy - goals and strategy of the company as a whole are centralized, and decisions related to operational management are decentralized.

“Decentralization is understood as the transfer of the right to make decisions to the lower operational and economic level - production departments that enjoy economic independence. This implies a high degree of coordination of activities but at all levels of management of the company, acting as a single entity.

The principle of combining centralization and decentralization in management presupposes the need for skillful use of unity of command and collegiality. Unity of command refers to giving the top manager of the firm or division such full power as is necessary for decision-making, and personal responsibility for the assigned work.

Collegiality involves the development of a collective decision based on the opinions of managers at various levels and, above all, the executors of specific decisions - the heads of production departments. Collegiality increases the objectivity of the decisions made, their validity and contributes to the successful implementation of such decisions. However, collective decision-making is much slower than individual decision-making.

A kind of collegiality is the collective decision-making. Collective decisions are usually taken by a majority vote, for example, at a shareholders' meeting. The role of the leader here is reduced to the preparation and justification of decisions proposed for discussion and adoption on a collective basis.

Another important management principle is the principle of combining rights, duties and responsibilities. Managers usually carry out their communications one level up or down from their level. Each subordinate must perform the tasks assigned to him and periodically report on their implementation. Each position in the management hierarchy is endowed with specific rights granted to it, and the manager holding the corresponding position is fully responsible for the tasks assigned to him and performs certain functions. No leader can transfer the task of implementing the decision, bypassing the direct subordinate. The negative point in the implementation of this principle is that the leader may be isolated from the sphere of his responsibility, since his immediate subordinates may interfere with his personal and direct contacts with the lower levels of the management structure.

One of the most important principles of modern management is the democratization of management, based on the corporate organization of ownership, when cash many people invested in shares are placed under a single administrative control.

Thus, management is based on administrative management, which we call in-house, and production management, based on production technology.

The principles of firm management are determined by many factors, in particular, the scale, profile and technology of production; the nature and variety of products produced; degree of use of electronic computing methods of information processing; volume of foreign activity and its forms.

Almost every company has its own management organization, which is constantly being improved by applying such forms and methods that would ensure the highest profits, high competitiveness of products and contribute to the penetration into new areas of activity and gaining a strong position in the markets.

The most important principles of management activity are the principles of centralization and decentralization, which form the basis of organizational forms of management. The centralized form of management provides for the management of the economic activities of enterprises belonging to the company from one center, strict regulation and coordination of their activities, their complete lack of economic independence, to the extent that their responsibility for marketing products ceases after they ship their goods to the marketing authority. firms. This form of management organization is usually used by small companies that produce one type of product or products of one industry, the technological process of which is closely linked, working mainly in the extractive industries and focusing on the local or national market.

Centralized management of a small company producing one type of product is organized quite simply. The top management of the company usually consists of the president of the company, who simultaneously acts as its manager, and two vice-presidents, one of whom is in charge of the production of products and issues of its technology, the other deals with the sale of products and everything connected with it. Issues such as the legal protection of the interests of the company in its business relations with other firms and the state, accounting, are usually entrusted to specialized firms.

Centralized Management big firm producing one type of product is more difficult. The President here only exercises general leadership company, and vice presidents lead certain sectors of activity with the help of their respective managers. So, for example, the vice-president, who deals with financial matters, reports to the treasurer, the auditor and the purchasing (supply) manager. The vice president for production reports to the manager of scientific and technical work and Chief Engineer enterprises. The vice president of sales also has two managers, one for sales and the other for marketing. The duty of the latter is to study the market, organize advertising, use all forms and methods to promote the company's products in the markets.

Centralized management of a large company that produces several types of products and focuses on both national and foreign markets is even more difficult. In such a company, vice presidents are allocated to help the president. The vice-president, who is engaged in production, reports to several managers, each of whom is in charge of the production of products of the nomenclature assigned to him. The Vice President of Sales usually reports to two managers, one for domestic sales and the other for overseas sales. There is usually a position and vice president - manager or general manager of general affairs, who acts as an assistant to the president.

The organizational form of company management is considered centralized when:

Functional divisions play a more important role than production departments;

There is a significant number of functional services (departments);

Research units are located in the parent company's headquarters;

With a powerful production and marketing apparatus, the sales network of production departments is subordinate to the central sales department;

The functional departments of the head office of the parent company exercise functional control over the product departments, manufacturing plants and sales departments.

Sometimes in large companies with a centralized form of management, a committee of governors is created under the board of directors or an executive committee. The responsibilities of such a committee include determining the basic principles for the management of the company, developing the main direction for the development of the company, reviewing projects for financing new capital construction, authorizing the appointment of managers, providing advice and advice to the top management of the company.

A decentralized form of management involves the creation of production departments within the company that enjoy complete economic independence, that is, they are endowed with broad powers both in the production and marketing spheres and are responsible for making profits. The top administration of the company retains the functions of monitoring the operational activities of the departments, coordinating their work and determining the main directions to ensure the efficiency and profitability of the company, as well as the implementation of long-term planning. Usually, the entire responsibility for the organization of production and marketing activities is assigned to the production departments. Each production department independently finances its activities, enters into partnerships with any third parties on a commercial basis. However, the very fact of creating production departments does not mean that the company is managed on the basis of decentralization. The degree of decentralization of management is determined by the degree of granting authority or the right to make independent decisions to the managers of the departments. In some firms, with a large number production units and the top administrators in charge of them, the president of the company makes decisions on all more or less important issues single-handedly, that is, the management of such a company is essentially centralized.

The transition to a decentralized form of management is carried out primarily by large diversified firms with a significant number of manufacturing enterprises that produce a wide range of goods, operate in extensive markets and have direct ties with the final consumers of their products.

"BUT. Fayol once wrote that centralization in itself is neither a good nor a bad system of administration, which could be accepted or rejected at the will of leaders or according to circumstances; it always exists to one degree or another. The issue of centralization and decentralization is a simple matter of measure. It is necessary to find its degree, the most favorable for the enterprise.

In the above principles of Fayol concerning organization building, there is a reference to the need to establish the appropriate scope of management, which is a very important element of the whole concept. Both Fayol and the well-known English management consultant Lyndall Urwick argue in favor of a strict upper limit on the number of subordinates to one leader. Urwick believes that the ideal number of subordinates for a leader of any size is four. However, there are many factors, such as complexity, the nature of the operations carried out, that make it necessary to have more than four people in their subordination.

Determination of the scope of management. When determining the scope of management, several factors of significant importance should be taken into account. In addition to the degree of complexity of the work performed, it is necessary to take into account the subjective capabilities of the manager, his ability to cooperate with the team. A manager can reduce the time required for management and control by: delegating authority to perform a clearly defined task; drawing up a clear and concise plan, developing appropriate techniques and approaches; the use of control and verification standards in order to be able to verify that his subordinates comply with the relevant plan, schedule.

The importance of establishing the scope of management. Of great importance is the correct establishment of the limits of the distribution of powers.

It should be borne in mind that in the case of an unreasonably increased scale of management, personal contact between the manager and subordinates is lost, the manager may lose control of the group, subgroups may appear, difficulties arise in checking the results of the group’s activities, and the quality of vocational training workers, as well as weakened control over the performance of tasks assigned to them, which negatively affects their morale and results of work. On the other hand, in the case of an unreasonably reduced scale of management, too many levels of management arise, administrative costs increase (primarily in the form of salaries to the administrative staff), more time is allotted for decision-making due to the need to go through all levels of management, the degree of control increases, which can lead to a decrease in initiative and creative activity, adversely affect morale.

The degree of centralization and decentralization depends on the scale of powers. Delegation of powers is an integral part of decentralization. In the absence of delegation of authority, the management of the organization becomes too centralized. The level of centralization is the lower, the more decisions are made directly at the workplace, which are immediately implemented and are of a narrow, special nature. Centralization is characterized by the lack of delegation of authority and known limits of competence, which leads to a decrease in efficiency in decision-making. Excessive centralization infringes on the development of the initiative of representatives of the lower echelon of managers.

Delegation of powers. The main purpose of delegation of authority is to make it possible to decentralize the management of the organization. This must be done when the scope of management is too large and the process itself includes the transfer of authority to lower-level managers to perform special tasks. Only powers are transferred. All responsibility remains with the senior manager.

Methods of delegation of authority. The transfer of authority may be done orally or in writing. Methods can be general or specific. However, they should not be too narrow or too wide.

Principles of transfer of powers. The most important requirements here are:

The transfer of authority should be carried out in accordance with the expected result. The subordinate must have sufficient authority to achieve the desired result; the transfer of authority should be carried out along the lines of management, so that each subordinate knows who specifically authorized him, to whom he is responsible; each leader makes decisions within his authority. Everything that exceeds his competence is transferred to the highest levels of management; only powers are transferred. The senior official remains responsible for the actions of his subordinate.

The art of delegation depends mainly on subjective reasons and includes the following: receptivity to new ideas; readiness to transfer the solution of minor issues to the lower level of management; willingness to trust the lowest level of management; the desire to exercise only general, and not, for example, hourly control.

Factors affecting the level of decentralization. Among them are the following:

The amount of costs; degree of unification. The desired level of uniformity can be more effectively achieved by strengthening centralization; enterprise size. In large enterprises, decisions are made by a large number of managers at different levels, which are difficult to coordinate. Where powers are dispersed, decisions are made more quickly; philosophy of management. Managers may prefer an authoritarian management structure, where all decisions are made by top management, or a decentralized system, where leaders at all levels determine the scope of authority at their own discretion; having the right leader. In the absence of managers of the required level, it is advisable to concentrate powers at the highest levels of management; use of control methods. The greater the ability to control, the greater the degree of decentralization that can be achieved; the nature of the organization's activities. If the commercial operations carried out are spread over large geographic areas, then a greater degree of decentralization will be required; influence external environment. This refers, for example, to government policy in the field of pricing, income, or some kind of restrictions on the use of labor. These reasons can reduce the degree of decentralization of the management of the organization, but their clear formulation can help solve the problem.

Benefits of centralized management. It should be named here:

Better control over the activities of the enterprise; the possibility of bringing all operations within the organization to a single standard; elimination of possible duplication of certain activities, efforts; more efficient use of personnel, equipment, production facilities. The centralization of management may, for example, make it worthwhile to acquire computer technology and other expensive but effective equipment.

Disadvantages of centralized control. These include the following:

The growth of bureaucracy, the accumulation of urgent issues to resolve, the increase in documentation, dossiers; delays in decision-making, especially in the workplace; decisions are made by those who are unfamiliar with the real situation in the workplace.

But, as you know, it is not enough to build the proper structure of the organization, it is necessary to coordinate the work of all its elements.

Coordination of the activities of the organization means the synchronization of the efforts made, their integration into a single whole. In other words, this is the process of distributing activities in time, bringing its individual elements into such a combination that would allow the most effective and efficient achievement of the goal.

Individual work and tasks of the organization. Coordination is most effective in cases where the employee sees the contribution of his own work to the achievement of the organization's goals. Therefore, it is very important that each employee of the enterprise be aware of the general line of development of the organization, its tasks and goals.

Coordination of activities and means of communication. The problems of developing a sufficiently effective coordination of the activities of all departments of the organization are directly related to the level of communication development, the need to maintain a constant information exchange.

When a production manager transmits instructions or other information through the means of communication, he must be sure that his message will be correctly understood and received in a timely manner. The reverse process of transferring information from a subordinate to a leader is also important. At this stage, there are failures, the lower link does not always know what information the management needs to make certain decisions. This is a serious problem, since the source of information for decisions at the highest level is the lower levels of the organization.

Reasons for creating commissions. Their creation is usually due to a number of reasons. First, it is necessary to have such structural subdivision where it would be possible to express ideas, exchange experience, develop collective recommendations.

Secondly, commissions are created to ensure the representation of interest groups. This allows you to reveal a more balanced, balanced point of view, which is based on broad knowledge and experience. In turn, groups that offer their point of view on the development of events show an increased sense of responsibility for the final decisions.

Third, as a means of distributing information. All members of the commission receive new information at the same time, which saves the manager's working time. In addition, it helps to increase the level of coordination of the organization as a whole.

Fourth, for the consolidation of powers, that is, here you can directly, bypassing the authorities, reach the required level of administrative power.

Finally, there is the possibility of using commissions as a means of improving professional training, developing the appropriate skills of a leader.

Possible shortcomings in the work of the commissions. Among them we highlight the following:

Relatively slow decision-making process; members of the commission with a high temperament can take a dominant position, suppressing the potential of others; as a result of disagreements between the members of the commission, they can make compromise decisions (not always the most effective ones); commissions reduce the powers of line managers.

The Board of Directors (Board) is a group of persons who play a major role in the activities of the organization. The tasks of the Board of Directors, the functions of the president and the secretary are discussed below.

The Board of Directors develops the policy pursued by the company's management and represents the highest level of management.

4. Human resource management is an important aspect of business

Since I work as a human resources manager in a law firm, it was interesting and informative for me to consider this issue of my work in more detail, based on the above teachings and schools. The study of man at work is the responsibility of industrial psychology. It is connected with the choice of the most suitable job for a person, which is achieved in two ways.

The selection of a person for work involves the following points: inclinations ( scientific definition a person's propensity for a particular job, from which he receives maximum satisfaction); personal selection (the use of such means as questionnaires, interviews, tests to determine the best of many candidates); education.

Selection of work for a person. This includes

firstly, the design and layout of equipment (equipment must be designed and located in such a way as to match the capabilities of the average worker);

secondly, the physical working conditions (increasing the efficiency of work, lighting, heating, ventilation, noise reduction, etc.);

thirdly, psychological working conditions (accidents, absenteeism, smoke breaks, salary and bonus systems, types of control, etc.).

Attitude is essential to leadership. The attitude of workers towards their job, firm, or management can influence their relationship with management.

The attitude of workers can reveal much about their behavior in certain circumstances. For example, the management of the company can offer the workers a new project. However, it may be met without enthusiasm. Workers may suspect that management has some ulterior motive because they do not trust management. Likewise, many managers are wary of workers' proposals because they see them as lazy.

This is an important management tool, because without knowing what specifically motivates workers, how they feel about work, the management of the firm, working conditions and wages, managers will not be able to determine the policy of the firm. Such knowledge is also important for understanding your workers.

One of the main causes of industrial conflict is the lack of understanding between managers and workers. This is due to the fact that both parties do not know about the relationship to each other. Knowledge of these relationships leads to understanding.

Additionally, the role is determined by the hierarchy of the organization, control systems in the organization, remuneration, status. It is necessary to take into account external influences on the role of society and its culture of the latent roles of the person himself, that is, the expectations of a person in relation to friends, parents, wife, children.

In practice, there is often a primary expectation of a central role. For example, if the boss says that he would like the work to be done in a certain way, then there is one of the subordinates who prefers to do it differently. Thus, a hierarchy of tasks arises within a set of roles, which varies depending on the situation. Various problems may arise here.

Firms with the Japanese management style have achieved a significant improvement in industrial relations by eliminating separate dining rooms for management, introducing a single start time for everyone.

More than two thousand years ago, Aristotle called man a "social animal" and thus expressed the tendency of people to organize themselves into social groups. We are all, with a few exceptions, "social animals". We are born into a social group (family) and throughout our lives are members of various social groups. We are never isolated.

So the social group is important aspect human behavior, and its importance is not sufficiently emphasized

In 1924-1932, Elton Mayo (1880-1944), founder of the "human relations" school of management theory, and his colleagues conducted a detailed study of the behavior of workers at the Western Electric Company's Hawthorne plant (near Chicago). Production at the plant was low, and Elton Mayo was asked to investigate the reasons for this. The experiments focused on the physical aspects of work (eg lighting), but it was found that improved lighting did not increase output, and in some cases production increased when light was reduced. Elton Mayo came to the conclusion that the divisions of the plant are too different to give conclusions about them as a whole. It took two lengthy experiments with a limited number of workers.

First, five women were selected, who worked in a separate room in 1927-1929. Working conditions varied and output was estimated after changing conditions. Output has been found to rise even as conditions worsen. The main reasons for this are that the women workers felt they were united by a common goal and that management was interested in their work. From this it was concluded that group morality and a sense of participation could overcome poor working conditions.

Then they did the same with the men. There were 12 operators and 2 inspectors. The examination period was six months (November 1931 - May 1932). During this experiment, it was concluded that the men who worked in the group considered anyone who did not obey the group as an outsider and condemned him.

The Hawthorne experiment showed that group behavior can be largely independent of working conditions or pay schemes. The Hawthorne experiments, like other observations, demonstrate a close relationship between morality and performance.

Any successful scheme of labor participation can contribute to this goal and thereby change the bad working situation. The enrichment of jobs, their enlargement, the change in the structure of responsibility should have a positive impact on the morale and efficiency of the workforce.

The concept of labor participation aims at something more than achieving some level of participation of workers in various bodies. It provides for closer participation at most other levels. An example of this is the participation of workers in setting standards, quality control, democratization in the group (including group definition of roles and distribution of remuneration between groups), etc. Recent years have shown that these schemes often lead to a general improvement in industrial relations. This improvement can be quantified (reduction in labor turnover, absenteeism, the best quality, reduction of marriage, etc.).

Real labor participation is possible only if workers are truly involved in the company's affairs, goals, policies and performance, and such involvement is possible only if management accepts responsibility for communicating facts and figures to its employees about the situation in the company.

The concept of worker participation at the managerial level represents a radical change in the traditional relationship between management and workers. However, there are potential problems here as well. For example, there are doubts about the ability of a worker to participate equally in meetings of directors due to insufficient education and lack of business acumen. If the unions wish to improve the situation, it will be only through the development of extensive educational programs, but in doing so they will face financial difficulties.

Managing the structure of the organization in its technical and social aspects is the task of top management.

The concept of bureaucracy was developed at the beginning of the century by Max Weber as an ideal form of organization. This form, if it were really created, would lead to a permanent structure of units that would be rational-legal and replace people in these roles. The characteristics of this model are:

A division of labor (specialization in tasks and activities) can "have vertical and horizontal links; a hierarchy consistent with the idea of a vertical division of labor, or a power structure in which power increases as levels rise; non-personal roles (a concept of roles closely related to the idea of division work).A role is a function prescribed to be performed.A function is separated from the person who performs it, and therefore is called non-personal; rules. Bureaucracy has written and unwritten rules. Unwritten rules are fixed on paper over time; expertise. Specialization requires experts to evaluate work, occupying a higher position in the hierarchy, which depends on technical and / or educational qualifications.

These characteristics create an elitist approach to organization in which power and authority are concentrated at the top and distributed according to a hierarchy.

In practice, modern forms of bureaucracy are characterized by such points as:

Centralization; size (the larger the company, the more centralized and authoritative it is); control (exclusively strict financial control); technology (the more expensive and larger the modern technology, the more it gravitates toward bureaucracy). Therefore, mass production tends to the greatest degree to bureaucratic features.

Bureaucracy, because of its rigid structure and technical specialization, is a method of scientific management. The principles of classical organization theory, such as the "step of control" or Fayol's presuppositions of "unity of teams", are based on similar assumptions. Weber noted that bureaucracy is rational as long as its system of roles and impersonality legitimize hierarchical power.

Division of labor. The over-specialization of the tasks of both workers and office workers leads to the fact that the work becomes boring and tedious, often requiring less attention from the worker. The result is what Durkheim called anomie, and Marx called alienation, that is, when the antipathy of workers to their duties leads, if not to a revolution, then certainly to a strike or bad industrial relations, plus poor product quality.

Hierarchy. The power structure becomes dysfunctional if it loses flexibility. The idea that the boss knows best is just as unacceptable as the notion that things should always be done this way and not otherwise. As long as the organization can adapt to changing environments, there will be a need for flexible and more rational organizational forms.

non-personal roles. In practice, the role cannot be non-personal, impersonal. People always bring their attitudes, values, needs, expectations, etc. to a functional role. Perhaps more importantly, the role is defined by the expectations of other people, superiors and subordinates, it can never be non-personal. The role must also adapt to changing external conditions.

Rules are what most people understand as "bureaucratic hooks". Each procedure must be codified according to a certain standard. The more rules are written, the more often they become the "end" of themselves. Formalism and ritualism prevail. The more rules that emerge to maintain a hierarchical power structure, the greater the potential for conflict. One form of protest in industry is "working strictly by the rules."

Expertise includes staff issues, career blocking, discrimination through the implementation of formal "paper" qualifications.

When the lower and middle levels of the hierarchy begin to realize the collapse of the organization, they raise questions about the whole system and its legitimacy, which leads to problems of power.

So far, bureaucracy is inherent mainly in large organizations. As soon as an organization, whether private or public, grows to a large size, it becomes more bureaucratic.

In summary, we note that the informal business organization represents the human aspect of business. This is a consequence of placing people in a formal structure. The special abilities of cadres, their likes and dislikes, their attitude towards something and prejudices, their social connections create hidden flows within the organization, which the manager, if he wants to work effectively, must take into account. Informal organizations can quite successfully counter the goals of a formal one. Knowledge of this phenomenon should allow the manager to understand the reasons for the failure of his plans and to use the informal organization with the greatest benefit.

In addition, leadership depends on motivation. Understanding the motives of the worker's actions and the use of this knowledge in creating an organization, in communicating with people, in shaping the system of remuneration should be manifested in the leadership.

In a hierarchy, greater or lesser levels of authority depend on the level of the position. The higher the level, the more power.

It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of "power" (authority) and "strength" (power). Power is given by the role and built into the structure of the organization. It is a right that is inseparable from responsibility and accountability. Thus, power is legal and is called "the right of the last word."

On the contrary, force is not necessarily legal, since it is not a right, but a capacity. It can be defined as the ability to make phenomena, events occur according to a given scenario. Strength coexists with power, if the latter is present.

The power base includes: the conditions for exercising the role and authority; place in the hierarchy; control over resources (eg production factors, information); property or trusted property: charming leadership - "from God"; "highest" education; traditions; granting power to superiors; factors associated with subordinates - expectations, desires and needs; estimates, terms of contracts; conditionality by genetic inclinations - the adoption of an authoritarian or democratic discipline; education.

In fact, without recognizing the leader as subordinate to the authorities, there may not be.

But the government also has its own problems.

Forces acting on the manager:

The manager's own values, determined by society itself. In a less authoritarian society, full power would certainly not be attainable or desirable; power is limited by costs and benefits; the acceptance of power includes responsibility. Not all managers are willing to bear any obligations.

Forces acting on subordinates:

Some may diverge from society for ideological reasons; subordinates yield to the authority of the manager because of their interests, which depend on motivation; people accept the power of others only to some extent; power may be assumed simply because certain aspects of the situation seem unimportant or not accurately assessed; power can be taken because subordinates are not strong enough to change the situation.

Forces acting on the situation:

Power may not be accepted during periods of long historical conflict; economic conditions, especially employment prospects, can make the adoption of power more or less calm.

It depends on the manager, of course, on the same factors as the power. However, power is exercised through control over resources, money, information and knowledge. Force is coercive.

Power and force can be viewed as a straight line segment from -100 to +100, that is, from the illegal use of force to the legal assumption of power. Managers use a combination of power and authority to achieve the goals of the organization, depending on the requirements of the situation and leadership style. But excessive use of the force method means that subordinates will not support the manager's actions for a long time and that the organization has signs of "ill health".

The following are some of the most important managerial and disciplinary techniques.

Strengthening official power. Executive is a leader, based more on what position he occupies in the hierarchy than on personal qualities. Therefore, it is important to increase the power of the position if the individual is to be an effective leader of his group. This forms an important part of behavioral research, i.e. role playing. Depersonalization of relations of power. If the decision-making of superiors becomes an obligation imposed by the organization, rather than a personal obligation of the leader, then this contributes to the strengthening of power. It also helps the leader when unpopular decisions have to be made. Decisions made on behalf of the organization are more easily perceived by subordinates than the decisions of a particular leader. participation of subordinates. Leadership can be authoritarian or democratic (in which the leader expects subordinates to participate in decision-making). Specialization and division of labor, however, limit the scope of decisions made with the participation of subordinates. In addition, if the views of subordinates are unacceptable to the organization and must be changed by senior management, contradictions may arise. awareness of subordinates. Undesirable behavior of subordinates can be caused only by a lack of information about the goals of the organization. A good leader provides his subordinates with knowledge of the norms of acceptable behavior and the consequences of its non-compliance with these norms. Constant change of interpretation and enforcement of the rules. Senior leaders must consistently enforce the rules of the company on subordinates. Randomness and inconsistency can cause divisions, lack of faith and a sense of insecurity among subordinates. Changing unpopular decisions. Managers should not make decisions that subordinates will not implement. It is better to change these decisions. Usage disciplinary action. The effectiveness of disciplinary measures depends on how highly subordinates evaluate their connection with the organization. Condescension. Some leaders are more forgiving than others. A condescending leader can tolerate small deviations from the rules of his subordinates and thereby create a benevolent atmosphere and a sense of personal loyalty, which help him to establish contact with subordinates to achieve the main organizational goals.

Social groups play an important role in today's business environment. If a manager wishes to carry out his functions effectively, he must be able to lead various working groups.

The main skill for effective management social group or work team is the skill of leadership. Leadership is the process of achieving the desired cooperation on the part of the group. Mary P. Follett, in her works The Leader and the Expert and Some Differences in the Theory and Practice of Leadership, published in 1927 and 1931, respectively, deepened this point by saying that the power vested in the leader is the result of the ability of the group to accept the individual. as a leader. The long-term effectiveness of the work team thus presupposes the presence of a manager who ensures the interests, loyalty and participation of all members of the team. A good leader, according to A. Fayol, must himself have the courage to take responsibility and instill this quality in his subordinates.

For team work, it is not enough for a manager to simply set a task for subordinates; he must find out together with them what it is. This requires the manager to be aware of the principles of group communication and the forces at work within the group. It must take into account how the group can influence the behavior of individuals.

Effective team work is characterized by the following points: a large linkage of interests (members of the group subordinate their own interests to group goals): combine the definition and perception of the goal; high degree of coordination of actions: adaptation to changing conditions; timeliness of decision-making and actions; prudent use of communication channels; productive use of meetings; liberal atmosphere when discussing issues, constructive criticism.

In any organization, tensions are created that can lead to conflict. That's why modern manager It is important to be able to manage conflict situations.

Proponents of the classical school of management largely ignore the conflicts that depend on the manager's ability to solve any problems that arise in this area. However, in the 1920s, M. Follett, in her work Constructive Conflict, proposed the following: instead of eliminating controversial situations, usually by force, the manager must manage this situation in such a way that it leads to the best.

Follett identified three methods for eliminating conflict situations, usually arising between a person (or a trade union) and the management of a company, namely suppression, compromise, integration. Of these, of course, only integration really offers a solution to problems.

Suppression. Force can destroy an opponent. Thus, a strong leadership will defeat a weak union or a powerful union can disperse the enterprise.

Compromise is the most honored and often used form of solution. In compromise, each side demands what it needs and bargains to the end. This is a temporary agreement, usually for a short period of time and leading to a new repetition of the conflict.

Integration. This approach allows the conflict to be viewed as a multifaceted problem, with the solution being to meet the basic requirements of the parties to the conflict. Integration requires one system values of the conflicting parties, so that one party fully understands the other. One of the common reasons why a conflict persists is that the parties talk too much about different things. Assume that A, B, C, D and E are parties to the conflict. The management of the firm attaches great importance to A and B, a certain importance to C, and considers D and D not to be of great importance. The individual (or trade union), on the other hand, tends to regard D and D as the most important elements, and views A, B, and C as unimportant. In integration, controversial points are separated and analyzed separately; Each aspect is given a certain weight. The needs, desires and hopes of the parties are brought together for consideration and evaluation. From this analysis, a reassessment of interests can occur.

The barriers to integration boil down to the following:

It requires education, receptivity, insight, and ingenuity on both sides; many managers have a habit of resolving disputes by dominance, which is difficult to eradicate; cultural prejudices; many managers are not sufficiently trained in the art of collaborative thinking.

However, with conscientious training of managers, many of these obstacles can be overcome.

Benefits of conflict. Conflicts are not only harmful. Although they are destructive, they can serve to clarify the relationship between the individual and the leadership.

A good manager cannot and should not try to avoid all conflicts. The manager must solve problems in the integration process and thereby clarify the goals of both parties. Constructive criticism along with advice will mean that the manager can benefit in the same way as the workers.

And now a few words about motivation. Since 1880, when F. Taylor began his systematic studies of management techniques, most of the work has been about motivation. Taylor made the following three basic assumptions about human behavior at work:

Man is a "rational animal" preoccupied with maximizing his economic income; people react to economic situations individually; people, like machines, can be subject to standardized fashion.

Taylor believed that all the workers wanted was a high salary.

Taylor's theories have long been used in practice in the form of incentive payments without any significant changes. However, in the late 1920s, the work of E. Mayo at the Hawthorne factories largely refuted Taylor's theories and pointed the way to more modern theories. But the basis for the most modern theories are the theories of motivation developed by the American psychologist Abraham Maslow(1908–1970).

Maslow suggested that a person is motivated by the satisfaction of a series of needs arranged in a hierarchy or pyramid of five broad strata. In ascending order, these are:

Physiological or basic needs (food, warmth, shelter, sex, etc.); security needs (protection, order); social needs (the need to belong to someone, to be in friendly relations, to be a member of any group); esteem needs (self-respect and respect for others, such as status symbols, prestige, fame); the need for self-realization, that is, the need to fully develop one's potential (creative results, achievements in raising children, etc.).

Maslow made the assumption that in the simplest case, needs are satisfied one after another, that is, as soon as one need is satisfied, it acts as a motivation to satisfy the next, and so on. But if any new basic need arises when satisfying a group of needs, a person will turn his focus on her first.

From the point of view of "work motivation", an employer who believes that a person lives only by bread alone will be stumped, because his workers will be unhappy and unmotivated. According to Maslow, "man lives only there by bread alone, where there is no bread at all."

Three important points of Maslow's theory should be remembered:

The hierarchy of needs is very similar to the development of a person from childhood to old age: an infant needs food and warmth, security and love: as he grows, self-esteem gradually develops, and finally a “self-motivated” adult appears. The disappearance of satisfied needs and the appearance of others in the form of motivation is an unconscious process: as soon as you get a job, you immediately forget all past hardships and start thinking about moving up, about status, etc .; if you don't get that, you will feel miserable, as if you don't have a job at all. Maslow notes that the five steps are not autonomous. There is a certain degree of interaction between them.

Maslow's theory is based on the assumption that while the need to satisfy basic needs in the hierarchy is as important as, for example, the need for vitamins, healthy man will be guided mainly by the need for self-realization of its potential. If a person is prevented from satisfying lower level needs, higher level needs cannot arise. However, opposition to the satisfaction of needs occurs for external reasons.

Entrepreneurship plays an important role in satisfying needs.

It contributes substantially to the satisfaction of physical needs (e.g. food, clothing) by providing financial sources, building confidence and security by virtue of its longevity.

The worker satisfies his needs for approval and inclusion in activities by communicating with his work colleagues and identifying himself with any work group.

However, the needs for respect and self-expression are particularly relevant to the consideration of employee motivation. Respect is satisfied through awareness and understanding of personal feelings. Self-expression requires the expression of the abilities and skills of the individual. These needs are manifested in the desire to take on certain responsibilities and in obtaining interesting and creative work.

Recent research on job enrichment shows that when work is done with more responsibility and variety, it not only increases employee satisfaction, but also improves the quality of work performance.

One of the most well-known concepts of motivation that continues Maslow's theory is the views of Professor Frederick Herzberg (USA), which determine motivation by job satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

This approach is based on data from experiments to find out what people think about their work (what makes them happy or unhappy, satisfied or not); in particular, engineers and accountants were interviewed. Similar studies were repeatedly carried out by other scientists in other countries, including those who called themselves socialist. And everywhere there was a high degree of reliability of the results.

It was assumed that the factors that cause job satisfaction are more diverse than those that cause dissatisfaction. Based on this, satisfaction is not just the result of the absence of factors leading to dissatisfaction, that is, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites. From Herzberg's point of view, the opposite of job satisfaction is "non-work" satisfaction, and the opposite of job dissatisfaction is "non-work" dissatisfaction.

Herzberg called the factors influencing the elimination of dissatisfaction hygienic, the factors influencing satisfaction - motivators.

The work situation (i.e., the actual work that the employee does and the conditions surrounding him - salary, control, etc.) can be considered as a combination of motivators and hygiene factors. The most important thing is not to mix them with each other.

Herzberg's research has established that it is possible to distinguish and classify hygiene and motivating factors.

hygiene factors Keywords: company policy, security, status, industrial relations, salary, working conditions, supervision, administration behavior.

Motivating factors: psychological growth (self-realization, according to Maslow), progress, responsibility, work itself, recognition, success.

From the point of view of hygiene factors and motivators, human needs are divided into two groups.

The needs of the animal nature are needs such as the desire to avoid pain, hunger, etc., which forces you to earn money.

Spiritual needs - this group refers to those qualities that are inherent only to a person and provide psychological growth.

Herzberg also noted that the implementation of these two groups of factors would be beneficial for both the employee and the employer. Hygiene factors improve performance, but motivating factors are necessary for real success.

Douglas MacGregor (1906-1964) American consultant in management, performed a number of studies on the theory of management and motivation. He described the various assumptions managers make about employee behavior. McGregor compared traditional management philosophy to more modern approach to job satisfaction and singled out the "human spirit" as the main motivating force. He called his two assumptions the X and Y theories.

Theory X (traditional point of view) formulates the management and control philosophy of traditional management. The manager tells people what needs to be done and often rewards or punishes them as they work. It operates on the following assumptions:

The average individual has a strong dislike of work and will avoid it as far as possible; in this regard, most people should be forced to work and controlled. They need to be controlled under the threat of punishment in order to force them to make an effort to achieve the goals of the organizations; The average individual prefers to be led, wants to avoid responsibility, has relatively weak ambitions, and wants security and peace above all else.

Theory "Y" (modern point of view) - new approach in management based on recent research. It has the following assumptions:

The expenditure of physical and spiritual energy in work is as natural as in play or rest; external control and the threat of punishment are not the only means to force a person to work conscientiously. This can be done using employee self-management and self-control; compliance with goals is a function of the reward associated with achieving them. The most significant of these rewards are self-satisfaction and self-satisfaction of needs; the average individual desires, under certain conditions, not only to assume responsibility, but also to strive for it; the ability to display a high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in solving organizational problems is widespread among individuals; in the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potential of the average individual is far from being fully used and must be maximized.

While many descriptions of the manual have been proposed, none have been fully accepted. Since the development of leadership theory is a highly controversial part of management theory, it is appropriate to consider some of their variations.

The "features" theory is based on the assumption that all successful leaders have some personal characteristics that enable them to succeed.

The theory of "situations" is based on the assumption that a person who feels himself the best to lead in a given situation will stand out from the group as a leader. According to this theory, candidates for leadership can be placed in various non-standard situations, and whoever becomes a leader can be formally appointed to leadership positions.

Mixed leadership theory is a combination of components of both theories. It is perhaps the most useful as it draws on information from various sources to explain the role of leadership.

Leadership can be defined as the desire of an individual to dominate the area in which he "found himself", combined with the ability to inspire confidence in followers to do what is required of them, or more simply, as the ability to convince people to do what is required of them. what they would not do voluntarily.

The most generally accepted characteristics of a leader are acceptance of responsibility, confidence, decisiveness, directness, education.

Based on this, the required skills can also be determined. Some of these skills are inseparable from a person's character, some can be acquired. They include: organizational abilities; acceptance of this approach by others at all levels; energy; encouraging initiative; delegation of authority, people management; tact; self-discipline.

Rancis Likert, an American industrial psychologist, contributed to the exploitation of human potential. Likert believed that in order to achieve maximum profitability, good labor relations and high productivity, each organization must make optimal use of its human assets. A form of organization that achieves this is the organization of highly effective working groups connected in parallel with other similar effective groups.

To change an organization, Likert highlights the main characteristics of effective management that must be put into practice.

Firstly, the motivation to work must comply with modern principles and methods, and not just the old system of rewards and punishments.

Second, employees are seen as human beings with their own needs, desires, and values, and their self-esteem needs to grow.

Thirdly, closely linked highly effective working groups should be created.

Likert has rich industrial experience and his theory is deeply scientific, many believe that practice refutes it. They point out that management in the 1980s was often identified with companies dominated by a strong personality.

5. Implementation of management principles in modern management

The time in which we live is an era of change. Our society is undergoing an exceptionally difficult, largely contradictory, but historically inevitable and necessary restructuring. In socio-political life, this is the transition from totalitarianism to democracy, in the economy - from the administrative-command system to the market, in life individual person- its transformation from a "cog" into an independent business entity. Such changes in society, the economy, in our entire way of life are difficult because they require a change in ourselves. To cope with this unprecedented challenge in the life of current generations, we, among other things, need to master new knowledge, learn how to use it in practice. An important part of this knowledge, as world experience shows, is the comprehension of the science and art of management.

In a simplified sense, management is the ability to achieve goals, use labor, intellect, motives for the behavior of other people. Management - in Russian “management” - is a function, a type of activity for managing people in a wide variety of organizations. Management is also an area of human knowledge that helps to carry out this function. Finally, management as a collective of managers is a certain category of people, a social stratum of those who carry out management work. The importance of management was especially clearly realized in the thirties. Even then it became obvious that this activity had turned into a profession, the field of knowledge - into an independent discipline, and the social stratum - into a very influential social force.

Preparing to enter Western markets, Russian companies are implementing Western principles of corporate governance. An example was the Yukos company, which will conduct business in Russia in a way that no one has ever done it here - openly and honestly.

"Code corporate governance Yukos is the third one accepted by Russian companies. Before him, Sibneft (in July 1998) and Lenenergo (in 2000) had already acquired similar documents. Others are also catching up - the code of RAO UES of Russia is already ready, the codes of Lukoil, Norilsk Nickel and many smaller companies are under development. But only those companies will survive that accept international principles doing business and will be able to implement them in Russia.

Analysts call the current corporate governance system at YUKOS the most advanced. The company managed to create a truly independent board of directors, which, in terms of modern Western standards, is one of the key conditions for effective management.

Another advantage of Yukos' corporate system is that, since this spring, it has been the first Russian oil company to switch to quarterly reporting and disclosure of all information. As a result, the recognition of the market, for the year the quotes of Yukos shares grew by 300%. Nevertheless, the Yukos system of corporate governance is not ideal either. Yukos failed to fully implement the plans stated in it. Perhaps the next codes will be better.

Without exception, all companies require professional top and middle managers. This year the demand for them has increased by 50-60% - such growth after the 1998 crisis occurred for the first time: The main reason is the change of management teams in companies. Crisis managers give way to strategist managers.

True, the demand for Internet project managers has decreased significantly, but web application developers, system administrators, database administrators are needed no less than last year.

Marketers of various levels and brand managers, as well as project managers, are still doing well.

As for “human resource specialists” (HR director, personnel selection and training specialist, etc.), their situation is unlikely to improve in the near future (some agencies receive 5-7% of all orders for them).

But the support staff (secretary, personal assistant to the head) is still lagging behind. On the one hand, they are not the key specialists of the companies, and on the other hand, their supply exceeds demand.

In general, over the past six months, the number of requests from employers has almost tripled - there is a need to expand companies, and they are looking for managers and qualified managers.

20 most popular professions

A place	Specialist	Average salary as of 01.08.98 ($)	Average salary as of 01.07.01 ($)
1	Sales Manager	700-3000	700-3000
2	CFO	2000-5000	3000-4500
3	CEO	5000-7000	4000-7000
4	Director of Sales	1300-4500	1200-4600
5	Marketing director	2000-5300	2000-5300
6	Project manager	1500-3500	1500-3700
7	HR Director	1500-5000	1300-4500
8	Commercial Director	1800-4000	1500-4500
9	Executive Director	2000-4500	1800-4600
10	Brand manager	1800-3000	1800-3000
11	Financial analyst	1600-2500	1700-2400
12	Marketing Manager	800-2000	900-2000
13	System Administrator	800-2200	1000-2200
14	logistics	800-1600	800-1800
15	Chief Accountant	1000-3000	900-3000
16	Advertising director	1700-2500	1500-2500
17	Accountant	500-1000	500-1000
18	Programmer	700-1000	500-1100
19	Lawyer	1500-3000	1000-2500
20	Assistant Secretary	600-1600	400-1300

“Leaders cannot use the potential of the team, says Vladimir Stolin, Doctor of Psychology, Professor, CEO consulting company "Ecopsy".

In modern corporations, teams are formed not taking into account functional roles, but according to the principle of competence in a particular business. Managers do most of the work themselves, acting on the principle of shared responsibility and often compete with each other. How, for example, are typical meetings in large companies? Each team member proposes his own solution and criticizes the proposals of competing departments, and the leader listens to everyone and makes his own decision. At the same time, there are only two roles in the team: “sellers of ideas” and “buyers of ideas”. This form of work has its advantages: it makes it easier for the manager to make decisions. By listening to opposing opinions, he gets a more objective picture.”

However, this form of work is only effective if the subject matter is clear and specific. There are more complex situations where the task itself is not clearly defined. For example, the development of an organization's strategy in connection with the economic crisis or the emergence of competitors. In this case, a clearer distribution of roles in the team is necessary. We need creative team members to come up with new ideas. We need people capable of logical thinking to hone these ideas. Skeptics are needed to spur other team members. But the main role in such a team belongs to the leader, who is able to integrate the result of this collective creativity into a single whole. Very few leaders know how to effectively use the potential of the team.

The most common situation in my consulting practice is the competition between the leader and the team members. An inexperienced leader often makes this mistake: he is constantly looking for an opportunity to show that all ideas should come only from him. He has more power, more experience, thinks faster than his subordinates and only uses them to train his mind.

Another problem common in our companies is negative team spirit. Each member of the group chooses the role of a critic and tries to prove the impossibility of solving the problem. Such a position dooms the team to failure.

The third problem that exists in many teams is the lack of a mechanism for implementing decisions. People gathered, talked, sketched out interesting ideas, but it is not clear who should implement them and in what time frame.

The abundance of nonconformists has a very destructive effect on the team. People who have a dissenting opinion and do not obey the rules are useful to the group, but in small numbers. On the other hand, a too homogeneous group, where everyone blows on the same tune, is also unproductive.

Since you have to work with already formed teams, the way out is to help group members learn different roles and consciously "enter" them when necessary. A sufficiently flexible person can learn not only to criticize other people's ideas, but also to generate their own, not only analyze, but also synthesize, not only make decisions, but also participate in their implementation.

“We have nearly 30,000 people working in our company, and we need to keep these people connected so they know what's going on at Pearson. I think that working as a co-owner is much more interesting, which is why almost 96% of our employees own shares in the company. I think it motivates people in a special way.

However, in our time, such activities are associated with great responsibility. I, like everyone who works here, is accountable to Pearson's shareholders."

“Last year was successful for the development of the state insurance holding Rosgosstrakh. For the first time in last years insurance premiums have risen significantly. There has been an increase in the number of your customers, both among enterprises and among citizens.”

The reasons for the growth are simple. We started mobilizing the internal potential of the company, using as tools centralization of management, end-to-end business planning, structural reform and development managers motivation. The effect turned out to be quite expected, and after the completion of these transformations in 2001-early 2002, we plan to ensure higher growth dynamics due to these factors.

“Giving maximum independence to subsidiaries, the CEO management company JSC "Motovilikhinskiye Zavody" Yury Buloev concentrated in his hands everything that affects the final result. Today he says that he created not a vertical, but a horizontal system of integration, which gives the most complete freedom for the entrepreneurial spirit of each of the subordinate structures. The holding includes 80 subsidiaries, all of which operate profitably.”

These results are the result of activities qualified management team, which from the very beginning of the restructuring of the enterprise went to independence in its own way. JSC "Motovilikhinskiye Zavody" was divided into many subsidiaries long before the word "holding" became fashionable in business.

Conclusion

For the creative and effective use of management principles, it is necessary to uncover and comprehensively investigate the objective laws and patterns of management. In turn, since the laws and patterns of management are based on the laws of the development of nature, society and thinking, it is necessary to form a perfect system of scientific knowledge for each leader, the broadest cultural and professional horizons.

The principles of management, having an objective character, should have a legal form fixed in the system of normative documents, regulations, agreements, contractual obligations, legislative acts, etc. However, the nature and forms of fixing the principles of management should be flexible enough to avoid excessive rigidity of procedures and formulations. This is very important, since a change in specific historical conditions leads to a change in the operation of socio-economic laws and, accordingly, the content of the very principles of management.

The interaction of the control and managed subsystems is carried out in accordance with certain principles, that is, rules. In practice, there may be many such principles. Perhaps the most important of these principles can be considered scientific in combination with elements of art. As already noted, management uses the data and conclusions of many sciences, since it is almost impossible to manage a complex modern economy "on a whim." At the same time, the situation can change so rapidly and unpredictably that there is simply no time to search for a scientifically based solution, and then unconventional approaches have to be used. This requires from the leader, in addition to deep knowledge, extensive experience, mastery of the art of interpersonal communication, the ability to find a way out of hopeless situations.

The management process should be purposeful, that is, it should always be carried out for a reason, but be focused on solving specific problems that the organization is currently facing. Any management process should be based on the principle of consistency. In some cases, the sequence of managerial actions may be cyclical, involving their repetition in the same form at certain intervals. The continuity of the implementation of business processes in the organization requires, accordingly, the continuity of their management, control and coordination of personnel activities. The latter requires an optimal combination of centralized regulation and self-government of individual elements of the organization. Since self-regulation is carried out by people, it is impossible without observing such a principle as taking into account individual features and psychology of workers, as well as patterns of interpersonal relationships and group behavior.

In order for the management process to proceed normally, it is necessary to observe such an important principle as ensuring the unity of rights and responsibilities in each of its links. An excess of rights in comparison with responsibility leads in practice to managerial arbitrariness, and a lack of paralyzes business activity and the initiative of employees. Here, the competitiveness of management participants is considered important on the basis of personal interest in success, supported by various motivators, such as material incentives, the possibility of promotion, self-realization, and the acquisition of new knowledge and skills. In modern conditions, the management process cannot be truly effective without observing such a principle as the widest possible involvement of performers in the decision-making process, since decisions in which their own work and ideas are invested will be implemented with greater activity and interest.

For a Russian employee, there are no barriers to career growth, he just needs to be a good manager or specialist, and then he is able to achieve any leadership positions. It is extremely important to feel the corporate spirit, to understand the goals of the company, its strategy, ideology. You need to be able to work in a team, take responsibility and discuss everything in a positive way - your work plans, the plans of your department, the whole company, the problems of your department, criticism.

Advantages. Russians feel better than in other areas in production, marketing, technology, engineering and high technology. The financial situation is somewhat worse. A strong advantage of our businessmen and managers is a penchant for innovation, a taste for risk, a game, new approaches, and a pronounced entrepreneurial streak. Our employees – specialists and managers – are very fond of learning and moving up the career ladder.

disadvantages. Leaders overly concentrate on themselves decisions, are not inclined to delegate responsibility. Top managers here are strategists and production workers, not marketers and financiers. Our way of doing business is more subordinated to the task of achieving the ultimate goal, and not to building a system and creating a technology for doing business. In this sense, the Russian style of management is more similar to the American one than the European one. Russian management is overly politicized, personal connections play too big a role, informal relationships. A serious drawback is the focus on momentary success, on luck at the expense of a partner. Hence the underestimation of perspective, problems with corporate culture, conflicts between managers and shareholders.

First of all, we must remember that Russia is a dynamic country, the markets here have not yet been divided, therefore people with an entrepreneurial streak are especially successful. It is necessary to show initiative, to overcome the measured and slow pace of large corporations in decision-making, to take responsibility. Bonuses and career prospects for staff should be used as widely as possible. This is the best way to get employees and especially managers interested. Russia needs not catch-up modernization, which everyone is talking about now, but overtaking modernization.

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