General characteristics of population mobility in the federal districts of the Russian Federation. Spatial mobility Population mobility
UDC 314.04;314.7;332.1
spatial mobility of the population:
economic and social aspects*
STROEV PAVEL VIKTOROVICH, Ph.D. economy Sci., Director of the Center for Regional Economics and Interbudgetary Relations, Financial University, Moscow, Russia [email protected]
KAN MARIA IGOREVNA, postgraduate student of the Department of State and Municipal Administration,
Financial University, Moscow, Russia
The article considers domestic and foreign approaches to determining the process of spatial mobility of the population. Based on the analysis of leading practices international organizations factors that have the greatest impact on the processes of spatial mobility of the population are identified. The influence of economic and ethnic components on the spatial distribution of megacities and agglomerations is reflected. The relationship between spatial mobility of the population and social economic development individual territories, regions and the country as a whole. The analysis of models and methods for assessing the spatial mobility of the population has been carried out, and approaches to improving the system for its assessment have been formulated.
Keywords: migration; regional economy; spatial development; social mobility; population; standard of living; assessment of spatial mobility.
The Spatial Mobility of Population: Economic and Social Aspects
STROYEV PAVEL V. , PhD (Economics), director of the Center for Regional Economics and Interbudget Relations,
financial university
KAN MARIA I., PhD student at the State and Municipal Management Department, Financial University [email protected]
The paper examines domestic and foreign approaches to the definition of the process of spatial mobility of population. The analysis of international best practices revealed factors that have the greatest effect on.mobility processes. The impact of the economic and ethnic components on the spatial distribution of megacities and agglomerations is reflected. The interdependence between the spatial mobility of the population and the socio-economic development of individual areas, regions and the country in the whole is substantiated. The analysis of models and methods for evaluation of the spatial mobility of the population is made; approaches to improvement of the system for assessment of the spatial mobility of the population in Russia are developed.
Keywords: migration; regional economy; spatial development; social mobility; population, living standards; spatial mobility evaluation.
* The article was prepared based on the results of research carried out at the expense of budgetary funds under the state assignment of the Financial University in 2016.
Approaches to Determining the Spatial Mobility of the Population
Spatial mobility is one way society organizes space. There are many different approaches to the definition of spatial mobility. One of the most common is the approach where mobility is defined as movement or movement from one place to another. Such a movement can mean as an object not only people, but also material goods, as well as information. Accordingly, the method of assessing the movement and the unit of its measurement depend on what is moving.
Russian researcher N.V. Mkrtchyan understands spatial mobility exclusively as migration processes. At the same time, spatial mobility includes both migration itself, which involves a change of permanent place of residence by an individual, and temporary, episodic movements, the role of which increases in Lately. Spatial mobility through migration is also determined by P.V. Vasilenko. The assessment of spatial mobility with this approach is based primarily on indicators of migration activity (the coefficient of immigration and emigration is the ratio of the number of arrivals / departures to the average population of the territory where they arrived / left, the balance of migration, etc.). The internal migration of the population, which takes place between regions, is also assessed, however, when assessing internal migration, limitations are possible, since in some cases it can be replaced by daily trips to work from one city to another, sometimes crossing the borders of regions. Attempts to assess internal migration are made by both the statistical authorities of the state and various research organizations. Thus, in 2013, the Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat conducted an extensive study in the field of cross-country comparison of internal migration.
Given the rapidly changing realities, including mobility patterns, in recent decades
In the last decade, there has been a reassessment of the attitude of researchers to mobility and its perception solely as movement in space. Researchers conclude that such a definition is limited. At present, mobility tends to become a "whole" that includes the movement itself, everything that precedes, accompanies and prolongs it1. Thus, more than a gap or connection between a starting point and a destination, spatial mobility is a structured dimension of life in a society. Such a broad understanding of mobility leads to the fact that mobility is perceived as a metaphor for a completely different form of relationship to distance and space2. In this context, the binary classification of space is no longer opposed - “near” and “far”, “here” or “there”, a number of meanings become interdimensional, for example, the understanding of “emigrants” and “immigrants” disappears, they become simply “migrants”. Mobility becomes a way of life that connects spatial and social categories. More and more researchers in the field of spatial mobility come to the conclusion that spatial mobility is inextricably linked with social mobility. In order to emphasize this connection, studies often use the term “spatial-social mobility” or “socio-spatial mobility”.
In the works of G. Simmel and Z. Bauman, it is shown that spatial arrangement and movement in physical space play a significant role in the formation of social relations. The ability to move freely in space is one of the basic needs of a person, the satisfaction of which is associated with his social status. In modern society, researchers note
1 See works: Kaufmann V. Re-thinking mobility // Contemporary sociology. Ashgate. 2002. P. 112; Urry J. Sociologie des mobilites. Une nouvelle frontiere pour la sociology? / Paris, Armand Colin. 2005.
2 Cattan N. Territoire mobile. De l "impossible concept à l" apport
des études genres // Penser l "espace politique. Ellipses, Paris. 2009.
not only the intensification of migration processes, but also the transformation of spatial mobility into one of the most important social resources of individuals and groups.
At the beginning of the XX century. as a result of the increased interest of sociologists in the impact of urbanization on the social position of a person, R. Park and R. MacKenzie proposed the Theory of Human Ecology, according to which the ecological order is a spatial structuring of human movements. In turn, R. Park noted that mobility is associated with a change of residence, a change of place of work, a change in the location of an institution, service or type of activity. In addition, in their joint work"City" was put forward the idea that migration (spatial mobility of families, individuals, institutions) often acts as an indicator and accelerator of social mobility.
Factors of spatial mobility of the population
There are indicators that affect spatial mobility. One of the fundamental factors for moving is the financial and economic component. It determines whether an individual (household) really has the opportunity to move to another area (region) with better conditions and which areas will be available based on his financial and economic situation. In addition, when assessing spatial mobility, researchers take into account factors such as labor market success and ethnicity3, as well as an individual's class of origin4. In addition, people differ in their desire to organize their lives at different moments in their lives. life cycle when the choice of place and length of residence is influenced by age, marital status and period
3 See: Silvestre J. The Internal Migration of Immigrants: Differences between One-Time and Multiple Movers in Spain/ Population, space and place. 2014. No. 20, pp. 50-65; Magi K. Types of Spatial Mobility and the Ethnic Context of Destination Neighborhoods in Estonia / IZA Discussion Papers. 2015. No. 9602, pp. 22.
4 Sociology of the European Union / Edited by A. Favell, V. Guiraudon. Palgrave, Basingstoke, 2011, pp. 224.
in life when the individual has made the decision to move5.
The economic component and ethnicity play a significant role in the spatial arrangement of cities, metropolitan areas and agglomerations. Over time, differences in economic development and ethnicity have created residential mosaics that are stratified by class and race. The results of residential mobility are not random and are the result of people expressing their preferences (for example, in terms of income, composition and ethnicity).
At present, the economic component is becoming an increasingly powerful factor in explaining the socio-spatial results of population mobility. In recent decades, migration processes aimed at the developed countries or the most developed regions of the country (if we are talking on internal migration) formed one of the main nodes of economic, social and cultural problems of the global world. A significant amount of migration flows are labor migrants, with the help of which the economic problems of not only poor, but also developed countries that need an influx of labor are solved. In the modern world, the mobility of the population is intensively developing, associated with the satisfaction of cultural and recreational needs of a person - scientific, educational, tourist, etc. Access to such mobility is a significant factor social stratification both between groups and within them.
Toronto neighborhoods, for example, have become significantly more income polarized over the past few decades as a result of increased attention
5 See: Kulu H., Milewski N. Family change and migration in the life course: An introduction // Demographic Reasearch. 2007 No. 17 (19), pp. 567-590. and Lundholm E. Returning Home? Migration to Birthplace among Migrants after Age 55 / Population, Space and Place. 2012 No. 18 (1), pp. 74-84.
6 See Friedman S. Bringing Proximate Neighbors into the Study of US Residential Segregation / Urban Studies. 2011. No. 48, pp. 611639; South S.J. Exiting and entering high-poverty neighborhoods: Latinos, Blacks and Anglos compared/ Social Forces. 2005 No. 84(2), pp. 873-900.
to a more prosperous region in social and economic terms of those individuals who had the opportunity to choose7. At the same time, the probability of polarization of areas increases with the increase in the number of resources available for selection among possible places of residence. And selective migration processes can offset the benefits achieved by public investment in the territory.
Linking spatial mobility with social, the researchers note that a number of households move in order to get more good conditions of life, respectively, they move to more prosperous regions compared to their place of residence, while another category of households tends to move to areas where the characteristics of the population are similar to their own8. This division of household preferences in choosing a place of residence embodies vertical and horizontal social mobility.
In addition, various authors note the phenomenon of “staying, not moving”9. Mobility is inherent in individuals who are able and willing to continue change, for example when they are not satisfied with their stay or their housing no longer meets the needs of the household. There is also a category of people who are dissatisfied with their stay, who are not able to move according to their preferences. At the same time, other individuals may represent a category of those who are satisfied with their living conditions, but do not want to move, even if they can afford it.
A huge contribution to the study and evaluation of spatial mobility was made by W. A. V Clark, M. van Ham and R. Coulter in their works “Socio-spatial mobility in British society” and “Spatial
7 Hulchanski J.D. The three cities within Toronto: Income polarization among Toronto's neighborhoods, 1970-2000 / Center for Urban and Community Studies. 2007. Research Bulletin 41, University of Toronto.
8 Schelling T. C. Dynamic models of segregation / Journal of Mathematical Sociology. 1971 No. 1, pp. 143-186.
9 Coulter R. and van Ham, M. Following People Through Time: An Analysis of Individual Residential Mobility Biographies / Housing Studies. 2013. No. 28 (7), pp. 1037-1055.
mobility and social consequences". One of the objectives of the research was to study the consequences of the movement of people in vertical social mobility as a result of resettlement from one territory to another, especially for poor families, as well as to measure the chances of people to improve their lives when their position in the socio-spatial system of the country changes. The authors proceed from the fact that throughout life a person acts and makes decisions in order to balance his housing needs and employment opportunities, as well as in order to achieve the highest satisfaction of life goals. Indeed, most governments now recognize that mobility leads to socioeconomic advantage and is a key mechanism for generating overall socioeconomic gain. The Social Mobility Strategy and High Ambition report by the UK Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (2009) indicate that achieving high social mobility benefits society as a whole. Thus, socio-spatial mobility is a key issue of the state, which has implications for the growth of socio-economic inequalities.
Assessment of spatial mobility of the population
There are many different approaches to assessing the spatial mobility of the population. W. A. W. Clark, M. van Ham and R. Coulter evaluate spatial mobility and its social consequences through national indices of multiple deprivation (Index of Multiple Deprivation - IMD), calculated since 1970 by the UK Department of Communities and Local Government. To calculate the indicators, the entire territory of the country was divided into small areas of England and Wales - LSOA (Lower-Layer Super Output Areas), the population of which averages 1,500 people, and for Scotland, DZ (DataZone) is used - data from records of the residence of individuals Scotland, average population DZ is 750 people. I-
The following deprivation indices (from Latin deprivatio - loss, deprivation) are used to provide a set of relative deprivation measures for small areas (LSOA/DZ) across the UK, taking into account seven main areas of deprivation experienced by households:
Lack of livelihood (de-privation of income);
Lack of access to decent work (deprivation of employment);
Low level of education and qualifications (deprivation of education, skills and training);
Unsatisfactory state of health and nutrition (health deprivation);
Dissatisfaction with conditions environment;
High crime;
Barriers in obtaining housing and necessary services.
Each of the above areas is based on a group of indicators for which data are taken from censuses, surveys and other sources. At the level of each oblast, a different deprivation index is calculated, as well as two additional indicators: income deprivation, which affects the index of children, and income deprivation of the elderly (both of these indicators are income deprivation sub-indices). At the same time, each area of deprivation experienced by households is assigned the following weights: income deprivation - 22.5%; job deprivation - 22.5%; deprivation of education, skills and training - 13.5%; health deprivation - 13.5%; crime - 9.3%; barriers to obtaining housing and necessary services - 9.3%; dissatisfaction with environmental conditions - 9.3%.
Thus, the Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) incorporates information from seven domains to determine an overall measure of relative deprivation.
As a result, to assess and track the spatial and social mobility of the population every time it is recorded that individual or the household moves from one area to another, the IMD index of origin and destination is compared
district. Positive changes in scores indicate that the household is moving to a less prosperous area, while declining scores indicate a move to more prosperous areas. The IMD index also makes it possible to assess whether the situation in the decile group has changed due to movement. It is important to keep in mind that the distribution of weights across areas of deprivation experienced by households and the scale at which the IMD is calculated (LSOA or DZ) have a significant impact on the calculation of the IMD index.
In the work “Types of spatial mobility and the ethnic context of the designation of neighborhoods in Estonia”10, the emphasis in assessing spatial mobility is on the movement of ethnic groups and the impact of movement on their standard of living. The authors begin their analysis with descriptive information regarding the intensity of movement between the two ethnolinguistic groups. This indicator measured as the percentage of those who move in different directions, comparing the location of the household with the location of ethnolinguistic groups (Russian speakers) before and after the move. This process followed by the application of a binary regression model to examine whether there are significant differences in the likelihood that subgroups of the population remain in the same place of residence or move.
The analysis continues with the creation of a linear regression model using moving households and individuals only to change patterns in personal ethnic living contexts as a result of movements. The absolute percentage change (decrease or increase) was used as a continuous dependent variable. In addition, the models also include a set of control variables, namely gender, age (10-year groups), educational level, and employment status. The Brazilian researcher L. M. Cavalcante de Melo approaches the assessment of spatial mobility not only in
10 Magi K., Leetmaa K., Tammaru T. Maarten van Ham Types of Spatial Mobility and the Ethnic Context of Destination Neighborhoods in Estonia/ IZA Discussion Papers. 2015, no. 9602, p. 22.
relationship with social mobility, but separately highlights professional mobility11. Spatial mobility is based on an economic reason, since in general people move from stagnant regions in search of better living conditions, which affects their chances of moving up the socio-professional ladder. Thus, workers migrate in search of places that offer more favorable socio-professional conditions, more chances of access to education, health care, vocational training and employment in sectors of greater social prestige. For the majority of the population, movement between social strata is associated exclusively with spatial mobility. It should also be noted that the researcher points to strong socio-professional mobility within and between generations that took place during the period of intensive migration and urbanization in Brazil since the 1950s.
To measure socio-professional and spatial mobility, the author introduces a number of variables, including the change in socio-professional position over a certain period of time, variables characterizing the level of development of the region in which the individual has lived and to which the individual has moved, as well as variables relating to the level of education age, work experience, occupation and gender. Then, when using polynomial logistic regression, L.M. Cavalcante de Melo offers a way to assess the possibility of socio-professional mobility of migrants in a new region in comparison with the region of origin. The researcher comes to the conclusion that new dynamic spaces for attracting capital and labor prove that economic rationality is inherent in migration. Thus, the individual continues to migrate to regions with growth potential that is expected to be better for achieving the desired socio-economic conditions. In the case of Brazil, the economy
11 Cavalcante de Melo L.M. Mobilidade sócio-ocupacional e mobilidade espacial: diferenciaçôes entre hierarquias urbanas para o mercado de trabalho formal, Brasil, 2000-2009 // Belo Horizonte, MG UFMG/Cedeplar. 2012, p. 166.
The mic factor has been dominant for several decades.
IN modern science until there is a clear and unified idea of what is meant by spatial mobility. Depending on the approach to understanding this term, a methodology for assessing spatial mobility is established. After analyzing the studies, we can conclude that at the moment most scientists agree that the process of spatial mobility is inextricably linked with the process of social (and sometimes socio-economic) mobility. Spatial mobility is seen as a concomitant of social mobility, sometimes as its result or as its precondition. In addition, researchers agree that spatial mobility has a significant impact on the socio-economic inequality of the territory.
Spatial mobility is one of the causes of inequality in income and wealth of regions in the country. Any individual or household strives for more favorable conditions, respectively, chooses the most comfortable areas for living, where it is possible to provide themselves with the required conditions. The individual makes certain demands on the conditions of infrastructure, obtaining a quality education and decent work, providing medical services and providing leisure. In this regard, those citizens who have a good income and high qualifications in their professional activities migrate to more developed regions. Thus, the most talented and professional personnel leave the less developed regions, which also affects the economy of this region. Most researchers directly link movement in space with movement along the social ladder. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account the standard of living in the region when citizens move from one region to another, and take measures to increase it and develop the economy, if the goal is to attract the population to a specific territory.
Literature
1. Mkrtchyan N.V. Potential of spatial mobility of the unemployed in Russia // Sociological research. 2012. No. 2. S. 40-53.
2. Vasilenko P.V. Application of the gravity model for the analysis of intraregional migrations on the example of the Novgorod and Pskov regions // Pskov regional journal. 2013. No. 15. pp. 83-90.
3. Cross-national comparisons of internal migration: An update on global patterns and trends/ United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. 2013, no. 1, p. 36.
4. Simmel G. Big cities and spiritual life // Logos. 2002. No. 34. S. 23-34.
5. Bauman Z. Individualized society. M.: Logos, 2002. - 390 p.
6. McKenzie R. The Ecological approach to the study of the human community // American Journal of Sociology, 1924, Vol. 30, pp. 287-301.
7. Park R. Human Ecology // Theory of Society. M., 1999. S. 384-401.
9. Clark W. A. V. Spatial mobility and social outcomes / W.A. V. Clark, M. van Ham, R.J. Coulter // Journal of Housing and the Built Environment, 2014, no. 4, pp. 699-727.
10. Clark W.A. V. Socio-Spatial Mobility in British Society / W.A. V. Clark, M. van Ham and R. Coulter // IZA Discussion Papers, 2011, no. 5861, p. 23.
11. Stroev P.V. Spatial organization of the Russian economy: trends and prospects for the development of cities as points of economic growth. M.: A-project, 2015. 144 p.
12. Fattakhov R.V., Neshchadin A.A. Priorities of state policy in the sphere of regional development // Society and economy. 2013. No. 1-2. pp. 108-123.
1. Mkrtchjan N.V. The potential of spatial mobility of the unemployed in Russia . Sociological researches - Sociological researches, 2012, no. 2, pp. 40-53.
2. Vasilenko P.V. Application of gravity model for the analysis of intraregional migration in the example of Novgorod and Pskov regions . Pskov regionologicheskij zhurnal - Pskov regionologichesky Journal, 2013, No.15, pp. 83-90.
3. Cross-national comparisons of internal migration: An update on global patterns and trends/ United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2013, No. 1, p. 36.
4. Zimmel "G. Big cities and spiritual life. . Logos - Logos, 2002, No. 34, pp. 23-34.
5. Bauman Z. Individualized society. Moscow, Logos, 2002, 390 p.
6. McKenzie R. The Ecological approach to the study of the human community. American Journal of Sociology, 1924, Vol. 30, pp. 287-301.
7. Park R. Human ecology. Theory of society. Moscow, 1999, pp. 384-401.
8. Park R., Burgess E., McKenzie R. The City. Chicago, 1925.
9. Clark W.A. V. Spatial mobility and social outcomes / W.A. V. Clark, M. van Ham, R.J. Coulter. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment, 2014, no. 4, pp. 699-727.
10. Clark W.A.V. Socio-Spatial Mobility in British Society / W.A. V. Clark, M. van Ham and R. Coulter. IZA Discussion Papers, 2011, No. 5861, p. 23.
11. Stroev P.V. The spatial organization of the Russian economy: trends and prospects of urban development as a point of economic growth. Moscow, A-Project, 2015, 144 p.
12. Fattahov R.V., Neshhadin A.A. The priorities of the state policy in the part of regional development. Obshhestvo i jekonomika - Society and economy, 2013, no. 1-2, pp. 108-123.
An important place in the study of the social structure is occupied by the issues of social mobility of the population, that is, the transition of a person from one class to another, from one intraclass group to another, social movements between generations. Social movements are massive and become more intense as society develops. Sociologists study the nature of social movements, their direction, intensity; movement between classes, generations, cities and regions. They can be positive and negative, encouraged or, conversely, restrained. In the sociology of social movements, the main stages of a professional career are studied, the social position of parents and children is compared. Moreover, such a difficulty arises: there are two parents and they can belong to different social class groups, that is, families are socially homogeneous, or socially homogeneous, and socially heterogeneous. In heterogeneous families, as a rule, social movements are viewed according to the scheme: mother - daughter, father - son. The social status of children and parents at the very beginning of the career of the younger generation is compared. At the same time, one has to take into account that this problem has always been overly politicized and ideologized. In our country, for decades, social origin was put in the forefront in characterization, biography, and people with worker-peasant roots received an advantage. For example, young people from intelligent families, in order to enter a university, initially went to work for a year or two, get seniority, change their social status. Thus, having received a new social status of a worker, they were, as it were, cleansed of their "flawed" social origin. In addition, applicants with seniority received benefits upon admission, were enrolled in the most prestigious specialties with virtually no competition.
The main focus of intergenerational social movements is from physical to mental labor, from the countryside to the city. Sociological studies have shown that in heterogeneous families, the social group of the mother is more often inherited. She is a professional educator. According to studies, more than 40 percent of children came from families where the father was engaged in physical labor, and the mother was engaged in mental labor, and, in the opposite situation, 15 percent. Perhaps the point is also that social origin was designated mainly by the social position of the father.
The social biography of people from working-class families is characterized by the fact that the vast majority of them start their labor activity with a low-skilled physical labor- more than 80 percent. Only a tenth goes over to the intelligentsia group. Only 70 percent of people from heterogeneous families start with unskilled physical labor, and about a fifth of them go to the intelligentsia group. Among people from intelligent families, two-thirds began their careers with physical labor, and one-third with mental labor, despite the fact that there were mechanisms for regulating this process.
In Western sociology, the problem of social mobility is also very widely studied. Strictly speaking, social mobility is a change in social status. There is a status - real and imaginary, attributed. Any person receives a certain status already at birth, depending on belonging to a particular race, gender, place of birth, parental status.
In all public systems principles of both imaginary and real merit apply. The more imaginary merit prevails in determining social status, the more rigid the society, the less social mobility (medieval Europe, castes in India). Such a situation can only be maintained in an extremely simple society, and then up to a certain level. Further, it simply hinders social development. The fact is that, according to all the laws of genetics, talented and gifted young people are found equally evenly in all social groups of the population.
The more developed a society, the more dynamic it is, the more principles of real status and real merit work in its system. Society is interested in this.
Sociologists do not limit themselves to describing objective processes, but seek to influence the social orientation of young people, the choice of a profession, taking into account social needs. Following P. Sorokin, we will distinguish between two types of social mobility: horizontal and vertical. Horizontal mobility is the transition of an individual or social group from one social position to another at the same level. But the most important is vertical mobility, for example, a promotion, a significant increase in material well-being, a transition to another level of power, etc.
Society can raise the status of some individuals and lower the status of others. And this is understandable: some individuals who have talent, energy, youth should force out individuals who do not possess these qualities from higher status positions. Thus, it is possible to distinguish between upward and downward social mobility. Of course, when a person retires, his status almost always goes down.
In social movements, group and individual social mobility are distinguished. Group mobility is observed when, due to major changes in society, often in conditions of instability, large social groups quickly move, the political and economic elite changes. A typical example is when Ye. Gaidar's team was placed at the helm of the state in our country. In the same way, the situation connected with E. Gaidar can serve as an example of a decline in social status, downward social mobility.
Of course, group social mobility consists of individual movements, but the latter always has its own characteristics. These movements are regulated by social institutions, establishing certain rules of the game. For example, the education system represented by prestigious universities, political parties play the role of social elevators for the formation of a managerial and political elite.
In the view of many, success in life is associated with the achievement of certain heights in the social hierarchy, that is, upward social mobility. But, first of all, you need to understand the rules of the game: that is, in what society you live and on what principles its stratification structure is built. It is clear that if the basis life success lies the title, origin or high position of your parents, and you do not have "blue blood", influential relatives, then your chances of advancement in life are low.
If a person's monetary potential is highly valued in society, it is necessary to evaluate one's entrepreneurial abilities; if the power is in power, then one must engage in political activities. But at the same time, it should be borne in mind that in a particular society everything is interconnected: it is easier to get political power, influence, having money. The "new Russians" - Mavrodi, Berezovsky, Gusinsky and many others - having acquired big money no matter which way, break through to political power. Can work like this social elevators, as a successful and profitable marriage, participation in mafia groups, religious communities, etc.
As a result of social displacement, a person finds himself in a new social group, which often means a new socio-cultural environment, to which he will not always be able to adapt. something reasons down? It is no coincidence that the common word "scourge" stands for "former intelligent person". It is as a result of the inability to adapt to a new socio-cultural environment that marginalized groups are formed.
Thus, the study of the social class structure of society, the processes associated with its change, takes important place in sociological practice. Moreover, not only domestic sociologists analyze stratification processes in society, but Western scientists also pay great attention to this issue.
The topic of this article is social mobility. This is a very important topic for a sociologist. It is held today at school in the lessons of social studies. After all, knowledge of the society in which we live is necessary for everyone. In our days, when the world is changing very quickly, this is especially true.
Definition
Migration in the broad and narrow senses
Migrations, that is, territorial movements of the population, can also be considered as one of the forms of social mobility. In a broad sense, they are understood as any movements outside the boundaries of a certain territory of its population (usually this territory is a settlement). At the same time, for what purpose and for how long the procedure takes place is immaterial.
However, in the popular science and scientific literature, a narrow interpretation of the concept of "migration" is much more often used. According to her, this is a movement that is associated with a change in the place of permanent residence.
Seasonal and pendulum migration
In a broad sense, migration includes, in addition to moving to a permanent place of residence, also seasonal and pendulum migration. The second is the regular movement of people between several (two or more) settlements. However, their place of residence does not change. Such migration is connected with work, rest or study. These are mostly daily trips. Sometimes, however, are also considered as pendulum migrations trips made on more long term(usually within one week).
Two important reasons for the sociologist to classify migration
Many features exist to classify migration flows. The most important for the sociologist are the following two:
1. Migration occurring between settlements, the rank of which is different. In some cases, migration is vertical social mobility. This is observed when it is associated with a decrease or increase in the status of a person who has a certain place of residence. In others, it is horizontal (in the event that the move occurs between settlements with the same rank). Today, migration as vertical social mobility is a phenomenon associated mainly with the process of urbanization. After all, moving from villages to cities is necessary element this process.
2. External and internal migration. This division is considered rather conditional. Migration human mobility is a vast phenomenon that cannot be rigorously classified. In official statistics, internal migration is usually understood as the movement of people to a new place of residence, carried out within the same country. Under the external means moving to a sufficiently long or permanent residence in another country. However, sometimes, depending on the goals pursued by a particular sociological study, migrations between different subjects of the federation are also considered as external.
Social mobility in Russia in the 18th and 19th centuries
Throughout the history of the development of our state, the nature of the mobility of its population has changed. These changes can be recorded quite accurately from the beginning of the 18th century. Russia, like any other semi-agrarian and agrarian society, was characterized until the end of the 19th century by rather low rates of vertical mobility. During these years, the basis of the structure of society was made up of estates. The boundaries of class groups, however, were at that time more permeable than in Europe during classical feudalism. The policy of absolutism pursued by the state contributed to this. Although the outflow was hardly noticeable in relation to total strength the peasantry due to the high proportion of its representatives in the population of the country, in relation to the urban estates and the nobility, the rates of mobility were very high. Paying the tax rate and the ransom, people from the peasantry quite easily got into the urban estates, they could advance in the social hierarchy up to the merchants of the first guild. The ranks of the service nobility also replenished very intensively. From all the estates of Russia, its representatives were nominated - from the clergy, merchants, petty bourgeois, and peasants.
The structural mobility of the society of that time (since the time of Peter I, at least) was insignificant. That is, the layers that make up the structure of society remained unchanged. Until the 1870s, only their quantitative ratio changed slightly.
Mobility in the post-Petrine era
Russia during the next 140 years following the reign of Peter I experienced not only a very intense vertical mobility. The structural social mobility of the society of that time was also significant and took place in several stages. First (1870-1917), a class of proletariat and industrial bourgeoisie was gradually formed in Russia. After that, mainly from 1930 to 1970, an intensive process of modernization took place. At this time, a structure was being formed that was already close to the corresponding one in industrial and post-industrial societies. The difference was that there was no class of private entrepreneurs. In addition, the sphere in which market relations operated was significantly limited. Since the 1990s, the third stage of structural mobility has begun in our society. It is associated with the formation of a post-industrial society in Russia, which is based on a market economy.
Change in the prestige of professions, high rates of inter- and intra-generational mobility
It was not only the quantitative ratio of different social strata that changed in the process of the structural shifts described above. The relative prestige of certain professions also did not remain unchanged. For example, in the 1930s-1950s, the most prestigious were technical specialties (skilled worker, engineer), in the 1950s-1970s, science-related professions, and from the mid-80s of the last century, those related to finance and trade. During the entire period, very high rates of intergenerational and intragenerational mobility were observed, as well as a low level of isolation of various professional groups. This was noted not only by domestic sociologists, but also by Western ones.
Territorial migration at different times
During this period, the rates of territorial mobility were also extremely high (both horizontal - to construction sites and newly developed areas, and vertical - from the village to the city). Migration began to decline only from the mid-1970s. However, since the beginning of the 1990s, growth rates have been observed again. Many people migrate to the regions of the Russian Federation from the former Soviet republics.
scientific definition
social mobility- change by an individual or group of the place occupied in the social structure (social position), moving from one social stratum (class, group) to another (vertical mobility) or within the same social stratum (horizontal mobility). Sharply limited in a caste and estate society, social mobility increases significantly in an industrial society.
Horizontal mobility
Horizontal mobility- the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located on the same level (example: moving from an Orthodox to a Catholic religious group, from one citizenship to another). Distinguish between individual mobility - the movement of one person independently of others, and group mobility - the movement occurs collectively. In addition, geographical mobility is distinguished - moving from one place to another while maintaining the same status (example: international and interregional tourism, moving from city to village and back). As a kind of geographical mobility, the concept of migration is distinguished - moving from one place to another with a change in status (example: a person moved to a city for a permanent place of residence and changed his profession). And it is similar to castes.
Vertical mobility
Vertical mobility- moving a person up or down the corporate ladder.
- Upward mobility- social uplift, upward movement (For example: promotion).
- Downward mobility- social descent, downward movement (For example: demotion).
social lift
social lift- a concept similar to vertical mobility, but more often used in the modern context of discussing the theory of elites as one of the means of rotation of the ruling elite.
Generational mobility
Intergenerational mobility is a comparative change in social status among different generations (example: the son of a worker becomes president).
Intragenerational mobility (social career) - a change in status within one generation (example: a turner becomes an engineer, then a shop manager, then a factory director). Vertical and horizontal mobility are influenced by gender, age, birth rate, death rate, population density. In general, men and young people are more mobile than women and the elderly. Overpopulated countries are more likely to experience the consequences of emigration (relocation from one country to another for economic, political, personal reasons) than immigration (moving to a region for permanent or temporary residence of citizens from another region). Where the birth rate is high, the population is younger and therefore more mobile, and vice versa.
Literature
- - article from the Newest Philosophical Dictionary
- Sorokin R. A. Social and cultural mobility. - N. Y. - L., 1927.
- Glass D.V. Social mobility in Britain. - L., 1967.
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010 .
See what "Social mobility" is in other dictionaries:
- (social mobility) Movement from one class (class) or, more often, from a group with a certain status to another class, to another group. Social mobility both between generations and within the professional activities of individuals is … Political science. Dictionary.
Change by an individual or group of social position, place occupied in social structure. S. m. is connected both with the operation of the laws of societies. development, class struggle, causing the growth of some classes and groups and a decrease ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
SOCIAL mobility, change by an individual or group of the place occupied in the social structure, movement from one social stratum (class, group) to another (vertical mobility) or within the same social stratum ... ... Modern Encyclopedia
Change by an individual or group of the place occupied in the social structure, moving from one social stratum (class, group) to another (vertical mobility) or within the same social stratum (horizontal mobility). ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
social mobility- SOCIAL MOBILITY, change by an individual or group of the place occupied in the social structure, movement from one social stratum (class, group) to another (vertical mobility) or within the same social stratum ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary
The concept by which the social movements of people are indicated in the direction of social positions, characterized by a higher (social ascent) or lower (social degradation) level of income, prestige and degree ... ... The latest philosophical dictionary
See SOCIAL MOBILITY. Antinazi. Encyclopedia of Sociology, 2009 ... Encyclopedia of Sociology
SOCIAL MOBILITY- SOCIAL MOBILITY, a term used (along with the concepts of social movements and social mobility) in sociology, demography and economics. sciences to denote the transitions of individuals from one class, social group and strata to another, ... ... Demographic Encyclopedic Dictionary
- (vertical mobility) See: labor overflow (mobility of labor). Business. Dictionary. Moscow: INFRA M, Ves Mir Publishing House. Graham Bets, Barry Brindley, S. Williams et al. Osadchaya I.M.. 1998 ... Glossary of business terms
social mobility - personal quality acquired in the process learning activities and expressed in the ability to quickly master new realities in various spheres of life, to find adequate ways to resolve unforeseen problems and fulfill ... ... Official terminology
Social mobility involves not only movement in social space, but also access to movement in geographic space - spatial mobility. As shown by G. Simmel, Z. Bauman, J. Urry and others, spatial arrangement and movement in physical space are of great importance for the formation of social relations. The ability to move freely in space is one of the basic needs of a person, the satisfaction of which is associated with his social status. Freedom of movement, primarily in order to solve economic problems, as well as to improve the political and cultural situation, has always been a high priority. social value. For dependent social groups, restrictions on freedom of movement constituted one of the most important markers of their subordinate position. In totalitarian societies, one of the instruments of control is precisely the ban on free movement. In the Soviet period, one of the most painfully perceived restrictions at all levels was precisely the lack of freedom of movement: the institution of propiska, which rigidly binds citizens to their place of residence; lack of passports among collective farmers, which prevents migration to cities for work and study; numerous restrictions on traveling abroad, both on business and tourist trips, etc.
In addition to voluntary spatial mobility as the most important need and manifestation of the freedom of individuals and groups, there has always been forced migration of refugees, forced migrants, exiles, vagrants - all those social categories for whom spatial movement is not a voluntary matter, but a necessity caused by severe life situation. Based on these differences, 3. Bauman singled out among migrants groups of "tourists" who move voluntarily and receive various economic, cultural, status advantages from movements, and "tramps" who are forced to migrate by life's difficulties, and for whom it becomes a factor in reducing social status, and often social exclusion.
Like social mobility in general, spatial mobility also fluctuates. In some historical periods it is limited, in others it intensifies. In modern society, researchers note not only the intensification of migration processes, but also the transformation of spatial mobility into one of the most important social resources of individuals and groups. In recent decades, migration processes directed to the developed countries of Western Europe and North America have formed one of the main nodes of the economic, social and cultural problems of the global world.
A significant amount of migration flows are labor migrants , with the help of which the economic problems of not only poor countries, but also developed countries that need an influx of labor are solved. These are highly qualified specialists, especially in the innovative economy ( Information Technology etc.), and some categories of medium and even unskilled workers, the need for which for some reason is not satisfied through internal reproduction (for example, middle and junior medical staff). Students make up a significant share in migration flows; for some countries, the education of foreign students is turning into a significant sector of the economy (Ireland, New Zealand).
The problems generated by labor migration for the receiving countries are, firstly, in the uncontrolled flow of illegal migrants who perform unskilled work in construction, seasonal industries, in the service sector, nourishing the shadow sector of the economy and constantly reproducing socially excluded and criminogenic groups. Secondly, due to the influx of foreign migrants into the countries of Western Europe, numerous problems of their adaptation and integration arise, which have not yet been resolved. Migrants belonging to other religions and civilizations form closed communities in which they maintain their usual way of life, reproduce behavior patterns that are not adequate to the culture of the host countries, which gives rise to numerous intercultural and interfaith conflicts. For example, in 2013, in the areas of London populated by Muslim migrants, and in 2014 in Germany, "Sharia patrols" appeared, monitoring the observance of the norms of customary Islamic law by all who found themselves in their territories. Such actions cause the strengthening of radical nationalist sentiments and the activation of the corresponding political forces in the countries of Western Europe, where tolerance is considered the most important value. Third, in receiving countries, the influx of migrants creates social and political problems. Integration of migrants can be achieved by providing them with access to social infrastructure and democratic political activism, but immigrants often prefer to enjoy the social benefits of host countries, avoiding work, which seriously increases the burden on taxpayers and the welfare state, which are already experiencing difficulties in conditions of the economic crisis.
In addition to labor immigrants from poor countries, in a globalized economy, constant movement is becoming an attribute of the professional strategies and lifestyles of highly qualified specialists working in global companies. For them, access to free movement on a global scale is a necessary prerequisite for career growth, professional development and prestige. In global companies, managers and technical specialists high-level, as a rule, accumulate experience in different departments that are in different countries ah, for them frequent moves, change of place of work and residence become attributes of their high status.
In the modern world, mobility is also intensively developing, associated with the satisfaction of cultural and recreational needs - scientific, educational, tourist, etc. Access to such mobility is a significant factor in social stratification both between groups and within them. Participation in international studies, conferences, competitions, etc. is a prerequisite for the professional growth of scientists and at the same time helps to raise the status of a researcher within the scientific community itself. For creative professions(artists, artists, writers, etc.) international concert and exhibition activities also become a path to a higher level of recognition. At the same time, even outside professional communities, the opportunity to move freely, to get acquainted with the cultural heritage and way of life of different countries, as well as access to recreational resources creates the prerequisites for increasing cultural capital.
Thus, access to spatial mobility is a factor of social stratification, the importance of which is increasing in the context of globalization.
