Labor force and economy. Definition of labor force Labor force in the production process

As a result of the evolutionary development of ideas about a person as a subject of economic life in scientific and educational literature

a number of concepts arose: "labor force", "human resources", "labor resources", "human factor", "labor potential", "human capital". Often similar in content, these concepts carry their own semantic load and reflect the gradual awareness by society of the growing role of man in economic and social life (Fig. 2.1).

Rice. 2.1.

concept "work force" in socio-economic literature and in practical life is used in two meanings. Firstly, as a set of physical, spiritual and intellectual abilities of a person, which he can use to produce material and spiritual goods, services, i.e. to implement labor activity. Secondly, as a set of carriers of the ability to work - those people who have the indicated abilities. We can say that the labor force as the ability to work is identified with the bearers of this ability - people.

It should be noted that in its second meaning, the concept of "labor force" is used quite widely and its boundaries are not sufficiently defined. Official statistics refer to the labor force as the economically active population, i.e. those people who already actually work or offer themselves in the labor market as potential employees.

If the production of material goods and services is considered from the standpoint of the resource approach, then the obvious conclusion will be that, along with material, energy, financial resources the most important factor economic development are human resources, those. people with their professional knowledge and skills. The peculiarity of human resources lies in the fact that they are both the resources of the economy and people - consumers of material goods and services.

As one of the forms of expression of human resources are workforce, which include the able-bodied population of working age and actually working teenagers and pensioners. The concept of "labor resources" was born and established in Soviet Russia and other countries former Council mutual economic assistance (CMEA), who practiced central planning as the main method of state influence on the economy. Under these conditions, a person acted as a passive object of external control, as a planning and accounting unit. labor resources. At the same time, as practice has shown, the concept of "labor resources" fits well into the system of modern market categories and, due to its wide information content, can be used as effective tool state regulation of the labor market.

The concept of "labor resources" gives quantitative characteristic part of the population that has the ability to work. But it does not take into account the differences in labor abilities and capabilities of people. Therefore, in scientific circulation since the early 1980s. concept was introduced "employment potential" which is in the general view can be defined as labor resources in a qualitative dimension, i.e. taking into account gender, age, education, state of health, consciousness and activity, which determine the "return" of labor resources as a resource of the economy. The concept of labor potential is based on the idea of ​​a person not as a passive object of external management, but as a subject with his own capabilities, needs and interests in the world of work.

From the end of the 20th century theory and practice of management, the view of man as the main, decisive factor in production and social development has become widespread. The priority was to understand that ultimately not technical level production determines the economic potential of enterprises, organizations, society as a whole, and human factor, embodying the ability to create, invent, produce new knowledge. It is seen as a manifestation of the totality personal qualities a person that affects his work activity. The human factor of production is characterized not only by indicators of the number, demographic, sectoral, professional and qualification structures of workers, but also by indicators of attitude to work, initiative, enterprise, interests, needs, values, ways of behaving in various situations.

The human factor is an economic and political term, the subject of interest of modern general theory systems, labor psychology, ergonomics and sociology. Attention to it is directly related to the need for socio-economic development, which cannot be achieved using authoritarian, administrative-bureaucratic methods of management. Activation human factor is a multifaceted problem, which includes complex processes of formation moral values, family problems, school and home education, physical health society, preservation of cultural traditions, personnel and social policy, education, etc.

Another concept that has gained currency in recent times, is "human capital". It is based on the idea of ​​a person as an object of effective investments and a subject that transforms these investments into a body of knowledge and skills for the purpose of their subsequent implementation. Human capital represents a stock of knowledge, skills and motivations formed as a result of investments, reflecting the totality of the physical, intellectual and psychological qualities and abilities of the individual. It includes innate ability and talent, as well as education and acquired professional qualification. At the same time, investments in human capital are understood as the costs necessary to increase labor productivity in the future, as well as leading to an increase in the qualifications and abilities of a person and subsequently affecting an increase in the income of an individual. It is assumed that a person, making such investments, sacrifices something less in the present moment in order to receive something more in the future.

Most a prime example investments in human capital are the costs of education.

Expenses individual person associated with capital investment in education and vocational training may include three components:

• direct costs (tuition fees, expenses for the purchase of textbooks, change of residence and travel, etc.);
• missed opportunities (lost earnings) during the study and in connection with the probable change of profession, place of work;
• moral damage caused by nervous tension in connection with education, job search, likely change of living environment.

The expected return on investment in human capital can be both in monetary form (an increase in the income of an individual, an increase in the profit of an enterprise, the economic growth of a region), and in a non-monetary form (getting satisfaction from the chosen work during life, expanding the circle of contacts during study, positive information about organizations, higher valuation of non-market activities and interests).

To effectively invest in human capital, it is necessary to measure and evaluate investment in a person, which is the most problematic and controversial topic in the field of management. by human resourses. measurements human capital and the evaluation of investment in it are usually inaccurate, but the measurement process itself is extremely important.

As a rule, when evaluating the effectiveness of investments in education costs in the present (C) are compared with the value of future benefits (I). The latter can be calculated by the formula

where В r is the expected excess of the earnings of people who have received an education over the earnings of people who do not have an education, in a year t; P- number of years of use of acquired knowledge; d is the market rate of return on capital (interest rate or discount rate).

Investments in education will pay off (can be considered effective) provided that the present value of future benefits is greater than or at least equal to the costs: R>C.

• As a synonym for this type of resource, some authors use the concepts of "resources for work", "resources of labor", "resources for labor". See: RofeA. I., Zhukov A. L. Theoretical basis economics and sociology of labor. M. : MIK, 1999. S. 116; RofeA. I. Labor Economics. 3rd ed., add. and reworked. M.: KnoRus, 2015.
• See: Labor Economics. Social and labor relations / ed. N. A. Volgina, Yu. G. Odegova. pp. 44-47.

the ability to work, the totality of physical and intellectual abilities that a person has and which are used by him in the production of life's goods. The labor force really exists in the personality of the worker and is the main productive force of society, the primary (along with land, nature) factor of wealth, the determining element of the productive forces. To the labor force statistics in developed countries usually includes all employed (including military personnel) and unemployed. A synonym for the concept is the category "economically active population". In the changes taking place in the sectoral structure of the labor force in recent decades, two major trends can be traced: a sharp decline in the number of people employed in agriculture and a significant increase in the service sector. The evolution of the professional and qualification composition of the labor force is also noticeable. The predominant category was predominantly mental workers, the so-called "white-collar workers". Number of employees physical labor shrinks both absolutely and relatively. Among the main areas of state regulation of the labor force are: 1) programs to stimulate employment growth and increase the number of jobs in the public sector; 2) programs for training and retraining of personnel; 3) programs to promote the recruitment of labor; 4) programs for social insurance of unemployment.

Labor power is the ability to work, and labor is use, i.e. implementation of this ability.

In a broader sense, labor power or the ability to work is understood as the totality of physical and spiritual abilities that the living personality of a person is endowed with and which is used when he produces any necessary benefits.

This kind of use of labor power is labour.

Labor is a purposeful human activity, to which he mediates, regulates and controls the metabolism between himself and nature, adapting natural objects to meet his own and common needs.

Human activity that violates the balance of the "man-nature" system entails Negative consequences. Labor in the full sense of the word is called upon to reproduce the life of society in combination with the control and regulation of ecological balance, the preservation and reproduction of the creative possibilities of the natural and climatic forces of the economy. Thus, in this case, labor can claim the status of expedient activity.

Labor features:

The first feature is that human labor, unlike what some animals do, is a purposeful activity, i.e. in the process of labor, a person fulfills a predetermined goal.

The second feature of labor is the unique ability of labor, which endlessly expands and complicates the labor force, i.e. human labor contains a creative, creative force that has no boundaries.

From this follows the third feature of labor, namely:

Labor is the most important factor historical development humanity and general progress.

labor property:

duration;

Intensity;

Performance.

The duration of labor is the time of labor, called working time, which is a measure of the employee's participation in labor at the employer's enterprise.

Working time measured by the duration of the working day, working week, working month, working year.

A working day is the time of day during which a worker works in an enterprise. The labor expended by the worker during the working day is divided into necessary and surplus.

Necessary labor reproduces the means of subsistence for the maintenance of the worker's own existence and his family.

Surplus labor reproduces the means for the development of production, creates income for the entrepreneur, as well as means for the maintenance of the disabled.

The length of the working day is measured in hours of working time, i.e. in labor hours.

The working day - this value is not defined, it can be long or short, but there are physical boundaries of the working day, determined by the need to have time to restore the worker's performance, as well as moral boundaries, determined by the need to have time to satisfy his family and cultural needs.

Labor intensity.

It should be understood as the density, intensity of labor, measured by the amount of labor expended per unit of working time.

In this case, the growth in the number of production items per unit of time is proportional to the growth in the amount of labor expended on them during the same time. From this point of view, an increase in the intensity of labor is equivalent to an increase in its productivity.

But the growth of the intensity of labor has its limits within the same length of the working day. At a certain point, an increase in the intensity of labor will require a reduction in its duration, so an increase in the intensity of labor is inversely proportional to an increase in its duration.

Performance.

The most fundamental property of labor is its productivity. In contrast to the duration and intensity of labor, which have certain limits, thus holding back, the general progress of producing labor is its special property in the sense that its growth is limitless and endless. Consequently, in essence, the growth of labor productivity means joining the forces of nature to the forces of labor, the scale of which is indifferent and the possibilities of man to master these forces are unlimited.

Labor productivity - its efficiency, fruitfulness, effectiveness.

It is measured by the number of products produced per unit of labor time, or by the amount of labor expended per unit of products.

The efficiency of labor is determined by the ratio of its results to the amount of labor expended on their production.

15. What is the labor force.

In order to perform a certain work, a person must have physical and spiritual abilities. The labor force is a combination of physical and spiritual abilities of a person, which are used by him in the process of production of material goods.

The wealth of any society is created by the labor of people, thanks to the functioning of the labor force. But only under conditions of capitalism the ability to work becomes a commodity, the subject of sale.

Why is it so? Let's turn to history.

The slave could not dispose of himself, as he was the property of the slave owner. Such is essentially the position of the serf. He was dependent on the owner of the land - the feudal lord and did not have the right to fully dispose of his labor force.

Can a person sell what does not belong to him?

Clearly not. Anyone who wants to sell his labor force must be a legally free person.

But is this condition sufficient for labor power to become a commodity?

No. And that's why. Small peasant or craftsman work on themselves- produce grain, meat, clothes, shoes, etc. They sell not labor, but products of their labor.

In what case would a peasant or handicraftsman begin to sell not the products of his labor, but his labor power?

Only if he does not have the opportunity to work at home, with the help of their means of production. A peasant or handicraftsman turns into a worker, a proletarian when loses own means of production. Under these conditions, labor power can only be used if it is sold to the owner of the means of production, the capitalist.

The worker sells his labor power of his own free will, since he is the rightful owner of it. In the capitalist world there are no laws obliging workers to hire themselves to a factory owner. But at the same time, the proletarian can't sell his labor power, because he has no other possibilities for existence - he does not have the means of production that would allow him to produce what he needs for life.

So, in order for the labor force became a commodity, two conditions are required:

firstly, the personal freedom of the proletarian;

secondly, the lack of means of production for the small commodity producer, his transformation into a proletarian.

This creates the need to sell labor. The transformation of labor power into a commodity marks the beginning of a new historical era - era of capitalism.

But if labor power is a commodity, then, like any other commodity, it must have both a value and a use value.

How is labor cost determined?

It is known that the value of any commodity is determined by the amount of socially necessary labor time for its production and reproduction. But labor power is no ordinary commodity. She, as we have already said, is a combination of physical and spiritual abilities of a person. If ordinary goods (shoes, fabric, etc.) are created in factories and factories, then the production of labor power is inextricably linked with the reproduction of man - the living carrier of labor power. Both physical and spiritual abilities, without which work is impossible, are inseparable from a person. A person in the process of labor expends his labor power, and in order to be able to work daily, he must day by day restore their physical and spiritual abilities.

By consuming various material goods necessary for life, satisfying his spiritual needs, the worker restores his labor power expended in the labor process, and thus gets the opportunity to work again. That is why it can be said that the value of the commodity, labor power, is essentially the cost of those means of subsistence that are necessary for the life of the bearer of the labor force - man, in this case the worker who sells his ability to work to the capitalist.

What means of subsistence are needed to maintain, restore and constantly reproduce the labor force? In other words, what is included in the cost of labor?

First, the cost of funds needed to meet the physical needs of the worker. It's about about food, clothing, housing, etc.

Secondly, the cost of the means needed to satisfy the spiritual needs of the worker. As the saying goes, man does not live by bread alone. Workers read newspapers, books, attend movies, sports, etc.

Thirdly, the cost of the means of training the worker. In order to operate machines and mechanisms, some minimum of technical knowledge is required. That is why the cost of general education and industrial training is included in the cost of labor.

Fourth, the cost of funds needed to support the family. Capitalist production cannot run smoothly unless the ranks of the working class are constantly replenished. Therefore, the cost of the labor force inevitably includes the costs of maintaining a family, raising and educating children - the future labor force.

The volume and composition of the needs of the worker are greatly influenced by the historical and national characteristics of the development of a particular country. There is a great difference between the cost of labor power in England, which for a long time occupied a monopoly position in the capitalist world, and the cost of labor power in economically backward countries, where the standard of living of the people is extremely low. Differences in labor costs may also be due to climatic conditions. For example, in the north, in a harsh, cold climate, a person needs warmer clothes, more high-calorie food, better heated housing, etc.

It should be remembered that human needs depend on many other conditions. These include national customs, traditions that exist in a particular country, among certain peoples.

With the development of human society, human needs expand and change. For example, the needs of the English German or Russian worker in our time are far from what they were, let's say, in the 19th century. The range of human needs has expanded significantly. Take at least such household items as televisions, refrigerators, computers, Cell phones etc., about which a person had no idea not only in the 19th century, but about some of them even in the 20th century.

But however varied may be the conditions that determine the necessary means of subsistence of man, and however rapidly they may change, nevertheless, for a particular country and for a particular period, the value of labor power is a value more or less constant.

Labor power under capitalism is a commodity, and its price is always subject to fluctuations. As a rule, capitalists buy labor power at a price much less than the cost calculated on the basis of a decent standard of living. modern man. At the same time, labor power is a special commodity. It cannot be put into storage and wait for prices to rise. The worker, who has no other means of subsistence than the sale of labor power, is often forced to accept a price that does not cover the expenses necessary for the normal satisfaction of his needs.

There is, however, lower limit labor cost is the cost of the physical necessities of life, without the consumption of which a person cannot exist and work. The capitalist who buys his labor power from the worker always strives to approach this limit, since it is in this case that he receives the greatest profit. Exactly how, we'll talk about it.

Labor power, like any other commodity, has, in addition to value, a use value. What is it expressed in?

The use-value of many commodities is immediately apparent. For example, boots are needed in order to satisfy a person's need to protect their feet when moving. The use value of shoes is realized in the process of wearing them.

What is the consumption of labor power?

In labor. Labor is the process of spending labor power. But here the peculiarity of the commodity labor power is revealed. Bread, cloth, shoes and other goods disappear and are destroyed in the process of consumption, and the labor force in the process of labor is not only preserved, but also creates new products. This is the peculiarity of the commodity labor power. The most important quality of this product is that in in the process of consumption, he creates more value than he is worth..

The value of labor power, as we have seen, is equal to the value of the worker's means of subsistence - the value of food, clothing, housing, etc. Suppose that the value of the daily livelihood of the worker can be created with 4 hours of labor. The capitalist bought labor power. Thus he acquired the right to dispose of its use-value. Therefore, the capitalist can force the worker to work not 4 hours, but more, for example 6, 7, 8, 10 or even 12 hours. But the worker for the first 4 hours of work already created a value equal to the value of his labor power, that is, he actually returned to the capitalist what he spent on its purchase. But the worker does not stop working, he works further as long as the capitalist says, for each next hour of his work he also creates value. It is this surplus, this surplus of value created by the worker's labor over and above the value of his labor power, that is surplus value .

The ability to create surplus value is the use value of the commodity labor power. This is what the capitalist is interested in. If labor power did not have this capacity, the capitalist would not buy it.

Having discovered the difference between the value of labor power and the value that is created by the labor of the worker, Marx unraveled the mystery of the emergence of surplus value, scientifically, irrefutably proved that how the capitalist class lives and enriches itself. The source of surplus value is the labor of workers, the results of which gratuitously appropriated by the capitalists.

Now it becomes clear how the contradictions of the general formula of capital are resolved under the conditions of the capitalist mode of production. Surplus value cannot arise without circulation, since not somewhere, but on the market, the capitalist purchases labor power, an act of purchase and sale is performed: M - T.

But, on the other hand, surplus value is created not in the process of circulation, but in the field of production, since the proletarian, by his labor, creates, in addition to the value of his labor power, surplus value. The capitalist, having sold the goods produced by the workers in his factory, realizes this surplus value and thereby receives a large amount of money: M + d or D'.

We now come to the question of how surplus value is created.