35. "What do I have in common with the Jews?" Alienation What do I have in common with the Jews? I hardly have anything in common with them, and therefore I can calmly stand aside; here is a situation that allows me to take a breath. Franz Kafka (1883–1924), Diaries; cit. by Robert Alter, "When tradition

2. The problem of the common good in post-socialist Russia

AUTONOMOUS NON-PROFIT ORGANIZATION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION OF THE CENTROSOYUZ OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION "RUSSIAN UNIVERSITY OF COOPERATION"

KAZAN COOPERATIVE INSTITUTE (BRANCH)

PROFESSIONAL ETHICS TESTS

Test tasks were discussed at a meeting of the Department of Humanities on September 26, 2012 protocol No. 2

S: Ethics is a philosophical science, the object of study of which is ... -: beautiful -: proper +: morality -: truth

S: In medieval ethics, the source of morality is declared ... -: man -: society -: space +: god

+: good; -: conscience; -: duty;

- All answers are correct.

S: Classification of ethical categories: -: structural and substantive;

-: based on one that is considered functional; -: position according to which morality includes moral consciousness, moral relations and moral activity +: all answers are correct.

S: In classical ethics, the moral qualities of a person are called...

- moral traits

S: Which of the ancient Greek philosophers introduced the concept of "ethics"? -: Democrat +: Aristotle -: Epicurus.

-: Protagoras.

S: Fundamental principles of administrative ethics +: humanism +: legality

+: fairness -: red tape

- unconditional performance

S: Business ethics as a science arises in ... -: the end of the 19th century

-: late 20th century +: mid 20th century

-: the period of formation of bourgeois relations

S: Goal-setting categories of ethics -: honor and dignity +: meaning of life and happiness -: duty and conscience -: good and evil

S: Control imperative categories of ethics -: honor and dignity -: meaning of life and happiness +: duty and conscience -: good and evil

S: Ethics is:

-: abstract reasoning +: science to describe and explain morality.

- Table manners. - nobility

S: In classical ethics, the moral qualities of a person are called ...

+: virtues -: virtues

- moral traits

S: The ethical ideas of Confucius can be described as the theory of... -: "governing people based on respect +: "governing people based on virtue"

- "management of people on the basis of a reverent attitude to business

Topic number 2. Professional ethics.

S: Who is the supporter of the "ethics of responsibility" of a person: -: I. Kant -: K. Marx +: M. Weber

S: Communication in social psychology is considered as a multidimensional phenomenon that includes certain psychological mechanisms ... and ... subjects of communication -: knowledge and control +: knowledge and understanding -: understanding and control

S: The humanist trend in Western European ethical thought asserts in business communication:

+: humanity of interpersonal relationships -: priority of love for neighbors -: truthfulness and sincerity of actions

-: H. Machiavelli -: I. Kant +: O. Comte

-: I. Kant +: T. Hobbes

S: The Sophian ethical concept states that “the true Self of a person manifests itself when he ... -: strives for personal independence

-: tends to connect with others +: begins to open up to others with love

S: Which of the ancient philosophers claimed that man is "the measure of all things":

+: Protagoras -: Paton -: Aristotle

S: The concept of compromise proposed by Confucius includes the requirements:

-: severity and rigidity -: self-restraint +: search for a "middle path"

S: To act morally according to E. Durkheim means: +: do your duty -: compromise

S: E. Durkheim opposes the principle of profit maximization:

-: the principle of social division of labor based on individual differences+: solidarity

- self-interest

S: The science of the universal laws of development of nature, society, man and thinking -: culturologists -: logic -: ethics

+: dialectics

S: The main mechanism of personality development is: +: reflection; -: causal attribution;

-: overcoming external and internal conflicts; - empathy.

S: Manifestation of mental derivation in early age can be: -: lack of a revitalization complex; -: isolation; -: fears;

+: fear of safe objects

S: Giftedness, as a deviation in mental development: -: hinders the development of intellect; -: hinders the development of volitional qualities of the individual;

+: creates difficulties in training and education; - difficult to say something specific

S: According to O. Comte, harmony in communication between people is ...

+: coordinated interaction based on the best combination of interests -: coordinated interaction based on common goals

-: the best combination of interests based on common goals

S: The first European moralist is considered ... -: Homer +: Hesiod

-: Hippocrates

V1: Etiquette.

S: What does "etiquette" mean in French?

-: thank you, bless you -: label, ceremonial +: behavior

S: Business etiquette is -: company mark

+: a set of rules of conduct in the field of business, business relations-: way to get the highest profits

S: What is assigned important role in business culture? -: the ability to read English -: the ability to succeed at any cost +: the rules of business etiquette

S: What should the color of the shoes be in harmony with ... -: with the color of the cufflinks -: with the color of the hat +: with the color of the suit

S: Initials are put in the signature. ..

-: after the surname -: not put at all +: before the surname

S: What is one of the most effective means of achieving business success ... +: sensible and well-written letter

-: visiting theaters -: knowing how to play tennis

S: Name the only official document that does not have its name -: order -: protocol +: letter

S: How should you recognize the correctness of the interlocutor? -: silent +: open

- never acknowledge

S: During a conversation, one should sit -: on the edge of a chair -: leaning back in a chair +: evenly and freely

S: Morality is:

+: a form of social consciousness and its implementation in practice, asserting a socially necessary type of people's behavior and serving the general social basis its regulation, presents the individual with a wide choice and is sanctioned by the influence of public opinion; -: the established order of conduct in any public or

professional group; -: personal and non-property inalienable benefit protected by law; - All answers are correct.

S: MORALS is a traditional concept denoting mass and...

manifestations of moral and immoral behavior -: common -: common

+: customized

S: Moral norm is…

-: a requirement that must be met in order to achieve a specific goal -: repetitive practical actions that embody

public expediency +: a single private prescription that compels to commit

a certain act or forbidding it

S: Interpersonal attraction contributes to ... -: mutual understanding of partners -: assimilation of partners to each other

+: mutual “gravity” of partners

S: The process of perception of each other by communication partners is called ... -: identification -: attraction +: perception

S: Egoism as a value orientation of a person is -: the desire to assert oneself +: the desire to assert oneself at the expense of others

S: The moral principle of conscientious attitude to work is not expressed in:

-: thrift and prudence +: pragmatism and economy

S: Morality is

-: a system of moral relations in society -: a set of norms and rules of behavior that people follow in their lives

+: a system of norms, sanctions, assessments, prescriptions and patterns of behavior

S: Morality is a kind of... exploration of reality -: artistic and aesthetic -: emotional - sensual +: evaluative-imperative

S: Approval or condemnation by the moral consciousness of phenomena, actions, attitudes, character traits of a person is called ...

+: moral assessment -: moral regulation

- moral control

S: Not specific to customs... -: localized scope -: looking back +: looking to the future

S: The principle of humanism presupposes that the individual will

Tests.
Business Ethics

Exercise 1.
1. The term "ethics" was introduced into circulation by:
· Confucius
Plato
Aristotle

2. The first European moralist is considered:
Homer
Hesiod
Hippocrates

4. The thesis about non-resistance to evil by violence put forward:
L.N. Tolstoy
F.M.Dostoevsky
I.S. Turgenev

5. Ethics and morality are related to each other as:
Science and subject of study
· Theory and practice
The rule and the act

6. Which of the concepts does not reflect the origin of morality:
· Naturalistic
· Sociological
utopian

7. Morality is ...:
A set of rules and regulations professional activity
A set of specific rules and norms of human behavior
A set of universal human rules and norms of behavior

Task 2.
1. Which of the following properties does morality have:
· Invariance
imperative
Immanence

2. Business communication is ...:
Formal communication, when there is no desire to understand and take into account the personality of the interlocutor;
When they evaluate another person as a necessary or interfering object
When they take into account the characteristics of personality, character, age, but the interests of the case are more significant than personal differences

3. What is the difference between effective business communication and ineffective?
Effective carries a large semantic load
Effective is distinguished by a clearly defined goal
Effectively achieves the goal

4. The communicative side of communication reflects the desire of communication partners to:
exchange of information
expansion of the topic of communication
Strengthening the information impact on the partner

5. The interactive aspect of communication is manifested in:
The need for partners to comply with established communication standards
Striving for superiority over a communication partner
Striving to establish optimal relationships

6. The perceptual side of communication expresses the need of the subjects of communication for:
Establishing friendly relationships
empathy, mutual understanding
maintaining a high status in communication

7. Which of the following recommendations are contrary to effective business communication?
Strive to seize the initiative in communication, strive to be listened to more, try to show your erudition
In the process of receiving information, do not interrupt the speaker, do not give advice, do not criticize
Make sure you are heard and understood
Task 3.

1. Semantic thesis business communication"separate the people from the problem" is:
Do not attach importance to likes and dislikes in business communication
Focus on the issue under discussion, not on the partner's personality
Resolving business communication problems without taking into account the characteristics of the partner’s personality

2. The style of business communication is:
· Behavior in business communication
Standards of communication in a particular situation
Individual-typological features of the interaction of partners

3. Identification is:
Sympathy or empathy for another
A way of knowing another person
The process of establishing contacts according to the algorithm

4. Stereotyping is
Knowledge based on the principle of "like to like"
The process of organizing the information received
The process of assessing the level of business communication

5. Reflection is:
Excitation of emotional experiences in a partner
The ability to focus on oneself
The reaction of a person to the peculiarities of business communication

6. To influence the personal relationships of employees, the manager must:
Define relationship goals
Personally intervene in relationships
Limit relationship development

7. What is meant by transactional analysis in communication?
Determining the direction of behavior in communication
Studying the main characteristics of communication
Analysis of the "moves" of partners in communication

Task 4.
1. Competence in business communication is:
Compliance of qualities functional duties
Ability to objectively evaluate relationships
· Ability to make necessary contacts

2. Analyzing his relationship with subordinates, the leader must:
Establish how the subordinate responds to authoritarian orders
· Oversee the development of relationships
・Invite a qualified consultant

3. If it turned out at the planning meeting that the plan was not fulfilled, then the manager should:
Ask subordinates to make suggestions
· Inform them about the planned remedial measures
Dismiss those who are lagging behind

4. Two-way contact between superior and subordinate is very important because:
The boss can trust that his orders are understood correctly
Subordinate can ask a question and clarify information
Without it, people cannot work

5. An approach that allows you to assess the conflict, discuss and find a solution that satisfies everyone involves:
Smoothing out conflict
Escalation of the conflict to open confrontation
Engagement of a third party

6. A manager who notices that a subordinate shows a particular desire (for example, actively seeks to communicate with others) must:
Punish him
Place in conditions that make communication difficult
Place in conditions where such behavior is part of the work process

7. Personal relationships objectively arise between people. It can be argued that:
Healthy relationships contribute to the achievement of organizational goals
The nature of personal relationships has nothing to do with successful work
Personal relationships should be strictly limited

Task 5.
1. To induce a person to do something, it is necessary, first of all:
Create conditions for work performance
Convince him to want to do it
· Show kindness and friendliness

2. To attract someone to your side, it is necessary, first of all:
Convince him that I am a sincere friend
Give him the impression of being important
Allow the person to "save face"

3. an expression that does not contribute to dialogue in a conversation:
You will be interested to know...
I want to talk to you...
I want to talk with you...

4. How to behave with an uninterested interlocutor:

· Ask informative questions, make the conversation attractive
· Provide an opportunity to formulate an intermediate conclusion
Thank you for contributing to the conversation

5. How to behave with an impatient interlocutor:
・Clarify and address issues together
Avoid any criticism
Always remain cool and competent

6. how to behave with an insecure interlocutor:
interest him and offer to take an equal position in the conversation
Encourage him, help formulate thoughts
Try to find out what interests him personally

7. "Body language" is:
Motor reaction of a person to the circumstances of communication
A means of purposeful influence on the interlocutor
Receiving and transmitting information using gestures, postures, facial expressions

Task 6.
1. how do you understand the saying “nature gave man two ears, but only one language”:
need to listen more than talk
if you want to listen, stop talking
For more information

2. Conflict is:
fight of opinions
dispute, discussion on an acute problem
Confrontation of motives or judgments

3. Conflict situation- this:
Random conflicts of interests of subjects
Accumulated contradictions of activity
・Confrontation to sort things out

4. An incident is:
Circumstances as a cause for conflict
The real cause of the conflict
The accumulated contradictions

5. The reason for the conflict is:
Opposite motives of subjects of interaction
Circumstances that cause conflict
Events, situations that precede the conflict

6. What conflicts are characterized by causes: violation of group norms; low preparation; inadequacy of the internal setting to the status:

Conflict between an ordinary employee and a team
Conflict between departments within the organization

7. The main causes of conflict between the leader and the team are:
Management style, low competence
Influence of microgroups and their leaders
Negative assessment of the manager by the higher management

8. What kind of conflict is characterized by the fact that two personalities collide in it, it is based on objective contradictions?
Interpersonal, turbulent and fast-paced
interpersonal, constructive
interpersonal, economic

9. What conflicts are characterized by the following reasons: new leader appointed from outside; management style; low competence of the head; strong influence of microgroups and their leaders:
Conflict between management and staff

Conflict between management and staff

10. What conflicts are characterized by causes: unsatisfactory communications; violation legal regulations; unbearable working conditions; low wage:
Conflict between microgroups in the team
Conflict between the leader and the microgroup
Conflict between management and staff

The process of formation of ethics began in the middle of the first millennium BC in Ancient Greece, India, China. The very term "ethics" (from the ancient Greek ethika, ethos - temper, habit) was introduced into scientific circulation by Aristotle, who wrote such works as "Nicomachean Ethics", "Great Ethics", etc. But it should not be considered the "first ethics". Even before Aristotle (384-322 BC), various problems morality was actively studied by his teacher - Plato (428-348 BC), as well as the teacher of Plato himself - Socrates (469-399 BC). In a word, in the 5th century BC. e. ethical research is beginning to take over important place in spiritual culture. Of course, the emergence of interest in these studies was not accidental, but was a consequence of the socio-economic, spiritual development of mankind. In the previous period, over thousands of years, primary mental material was accumulated, which was fixed mainly in oral folk art - in myths, fairy tales, religious ideas of primitive society, in proverbs and sayings, and in which the first attempts were made to somehow reflect and comprehend the relationship between people, the relationship between man and nature, to imagine the place of man in the world. Further, the beginning of the process of the formation of ethics was also facilitated by the abrupt breakdown of social life, which took place in the middle of the first millennium BC. e. The ever-strengthening state power supplanted tribal relations, old traditions, and customs. There was a need to form new guidelines, ideals, new mechanisms for regulating relations between people. In response to this need to comprehend a new way of life, ethics emerged. It is no coincidence that many ancient thinkers emphasized the practical orientation of ethics. As Aristotle noted, the goal of ethical teaching is "not knowledge, but actions." Moral teaching was most often understood as worldly wisdom, requiring a certain harmony, order, measure. Morality was viewed through the prism of virtue.

Hence the attention that the ancient Greek thinkers paid to the consideration of the virtues is quite logical. A number of Plato's dialogues are devoted to the analysis of various manifestations of virtues, to comprehending the essence of virtue as such. Very many virtues were comprehensively considered in the writings of Aristotle, the Stoics (Zeno, Seneca, Epictetus, etc.). And even earlier, one might say, the first European moralist Hesiod (end of the 8th century BC - beginning of the 7th century BC) in the poem "Works and Days" gives a detailed, emotional description of virtues and vices. Among the first, he singles out thrift, diligence, punctuality, etc.

Attempts have been made to somehow systematize the virtues so that they are easier to navigate. So, Plato identifies four basic, cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, moderation and justice. Later, in fact, these same basic virtues were singled out by the Stoics. Aristotle, on the other hand, believed that there were two main groups of virtues: dianoetic (thinking, associated with the activity of the mind) wisdom, prudence, ingenuity, and ethical (associated with the activity of the will) - courage, poise, generosity, etc. At the same time, the ancient Greek philosopher believed that each virtue is the middle between two extremes. So, modesty is the middle between shamelessness and shyness. Self-respect is the middle ground between waywardness and sycophancy. Truthfulness is the middle ground between pretense and boasting. A similar characterization will be given to quite a few virtues. It should be noted that ideas about the golden mean are also found in the culture of ancient India, ancient China.

It has long been noticed that in the culture of antiquity one can find the beginnings of almost all areas of philosophy, including moral philosophy, which were developed in later times. Thus, the sophists Protagoras (481-411 BC), Gorgias (483-375 BC) and others can be considered the founders of ethical relativism (from Latin relativus - relative). The predecessors of the sophists, who shared in many respects the ideas of ancient mythology, believed that the entire universe and man exist according to the same laws. The cosmos was even somewhat likened to the human body. Protagoras and his like-minded people were actually the first to declare that the laws of nature differ significantly from the laws of society. If the former exist objectively, then the latter are established by the people themselves, taking into account their own interests. Sophists often pointed to the diversity of morals and made a hasty conclusion about the relativity of good and evil. They often argued that a statesman had one virtue, another artisan, and a warrior a third. All this led to the idea of ​​instability, vagueness of moral prescriptions and, of course, the possibility of violating them.

The opponent of the sophists in a number of respects was Socrates (469-399 BC), who with good reason should be considered one of the founders of ethical rationalism (from Latin rationalis - reasonable). Socrates sought to find a reliable basis for moral laws. In his opinion, an individual does evil only out of ignorance. By his own will, a person never commits unseemly acts. The one who knows what is bad and what is good, nothing will force him to act badly. It turned out that Socrates reduced virtue to the knowledge of virtue. In a word, in Socrates all the virtues are permeated with rationality.

Ethical rationalism received its logical conclusion in the doctrine of Platov, a student of Socrates. The latter gave the concepts (ideas) of virtues an independent existence, ontologized them. According to Plato, there is a special, supersensible world of ideas, which has a true being, and the earthly world is only a pale, inaccurate and imperfect copy of this higher world, in which the idea of ​​good occupies a central place. The human soul, prior to its entry into the body (the prison of the soul), lived in this beautiful world and directly contemplated the ideas of goodness, justice, nobility, etc. In earthly life, the soul recalls what was known, directly contemplated in the supersensible world of ideas.

In antiquity, such a direction as eudemonism was born (from the ancient Greek eudamonia - happiness, bliss), which consisted in the desire to establish harmony between virtue and the pursuit of happiness. The positions of eudemonism were shared by many ancient thinkers - Socrates, Democritus, Plato, etc. As Aristotle noted, "calling happiness the highest good seems to be something generally recognized." At the same time, it was assumed that happy man striving for justice good deeds, and in turn, good deeds lead to happiness, to a good mood.

In the works of a number of thinkers of antiquity, eudemonism was often intertwined with hedonism (from the ancient Greek hedone - pleasure), interpreting that virtuous behavior should be combined with experiences of pleasure, and vicious behavior with suffering. The founders of hedonism are usually considered Democritus, Epicurus, Aristippus (435-356 BC).

Eudemonism and hedonism were opposed to a certain extent by asceticism, which connected the moral life of a person with the self-restraint of sensual aspirations and pleasures. Of course, these restrictions should not be regarded as an end in themselves, but only as a means to achieve higher goals. moral values. Elements of asceticism are not difficult to detect in the teachings of the Cynics and Stoics. Antisthenes (435-370 BC) is considered to be the founder of Cynicism. But, perhaps, his disciple Diogenes (404-323, BC) received legendary fame.

Zeno (336-264 BC) is considered the founder of Stoicism. But the most famous were the works of representatives of Roman stoicism - Seneca (3 BC - 65 AD), Epictetus (50-138), Marcus Aurelius (121-180). They also preached the need to renounce sensual pleasures, striving for peace of mind. Marcus Aurelius taught about the frailty, the fragility of earthly existence. Earthly values ​​are short-lived, perishable, deceptive and cannot be the basis of human happiness. In addition, a person, according to the Stoics, is not able to change anything in the surrounding reality, and he can only submit to fate ("the going fate attracts, the one who resists - drags"). The task of philosophy is to help a person to accept the blows of fate.

Thus, we can say that the thinkers of antiquity considered many problems of morality and created the cultural groundwork that predetermined to a large extent the development of ethics in subsequent centuries.

The direct successor, although rather one-sided, of ancient culture was the ethics of the Middle Ages (V-XV her.), which perceived the culture of antiquity mainly through the prism of Christian dogmas. In the teachings of Christian thinkers, it is easy to see echoes of a whole series of provisions of Stoicism, the teachings of Plato, and somewhat less of Aristotle and some other philosophers of antiquity. However, the culture of antiquity was distinguished by a fairly broad view of man, allowed the coexistence of the most diverse opinions about the world and man. The Christian world, especially in the first centuries of its existence, was quite rigid about the purity of faith. In the ethical studies of Christians, theocentrism dominated, i.e. everything was considered through the prism of the relationship to God, checked for compliance with the Holy Scriptures, the decisions of the councils. As a result, a noticeably new understanding of man was formed. IN Sermon on the Mount Christ affirms as the most important virtues humility, patience, humility, meekness, mercy, and even love for enemies. A significant place in Christian ethics is given to such a virtue as love for God. The very concept of love is ontologized: "God is love." It is perhaps worth noting one more feature of Christian teaching - this is the idea of ​​universal sinfulness and the need for mass repentance.

As an undoubtedly positive, one should point to the strengthening of the personal principle in the moral teaching of Christianity, which addressed every human person regardless of his social status and spoke of the equality of all before God. The image of Christ, the God-Man, the Superpersonality, who traveled the earthly path and suffered for the sins of every person, also contributed to the strengthening of the personal principle.

One of the central problems of any moral philosophy is the problem of the origin, the nature of morality. And here it must be admitted that on this issue the opinions of Christian thinkers of various denominations practically coincide: they all speak of the divine nature of morality, proceed from one of the most important dogmas, according to which God is the Creator and Provider of the visible and invisible world.

Already the first Christian thinkers (fathers and teachers of the church) one way or another argued that a person receives moral convictions from God in two ways. First: in the process of creating the soul, God lays in it certain moral feelings and ideas. It turns out that an individual appears in this world already with certain moral inclinations, at least.

This moral disposition is called the natural moral law. And the natural moral law is supplemented by the divinely revealed moral law, i.e. those commandments, prescriptions, which are stated in the Bible.

The fathers and teachers of the church emphasized the role of faith in the moral life of a person, and in their classifications of virtues, they considered the most important such as faith, hope, love.

Thus, in the Middle Ages, when there was a total domination of religion and the church, the most important moral problems were solved in a specific way - through the prism of religious dogmas, in the interests of the church.

The era of modern times is characterized by profound changes in the spiritual, economic, and political spheres. Although the positions of religion are still quite strong, religious reforms are shaking such European countries as Germany, England, France, etc. A new variety of Christianity appears - Protestantism, which from the very beginning took on a rationalistic character; church rituals are simplified, morally rises everyday life man as a form of service to God.

Although the positions of religion in modern times remain very strong, nevertheless, the spiritual, including the religious life of society, is becoming more diverse. First, as we have already noted, the most diverse trends of Protestantism are emerging. Secondly, in modern times, various forms of freethinking are spreading to a certain extent: atheism, deism, skepticism, pantheism, etc. Accordingly, some questions of moral theory are interpreted somewhat differently. Thus, the skeptics M. Montaigne, P. Bayle admitted the possibility of the existence of morality independent of religion and even stated that an atheist can be a moral being.

A significant part of the thinkers of modern times tried to find the origins of morality in the mind of man, in his nature.

In the XVII-XVIII centuries. the theory of rational egoism is spreading (Spinoza, Helvetius, Holbach, and others). In the 19th century it was supported by L. Feuerbach, N. Chernyshevsky and others. According to this theory, it is simply unprofitable for a person to lead an immoral lifestyle, because people will respond to his atrocities in the same way (according to the proverb: "as it comes around, so it will respond"). And of course, it is beneficial for a person to fight against everything that interferes with his own happiness and the happiness of those close to him. In comparison with the Middle Ages, ethical quests are incomparably more variegated, multidirectional, which made it possible to create a certain theoretical foundation for the moral philosophy of subsequent generations. At the end of the XVIII century. Through the efforts of many thinkers, ethics acquired an independent status, revealed in many respects the specifics of the object of its study (morality), and created a fairly developed conceptual apparatus.

The ethical thought of the late 19th and the entire 20th century presented a rather mixed picture. Relying on the achievements of her predecessors, she examines the eternal problems of man from different worldview positions (religious and materialistic), with varying degrees of use of the achievements of such sciences as psychology, genetics, sociology, history, etc. Differently illuminated in the light of higher moral values ​​and those new situations that are generated by modern scientific and technological revolution. Reviewing this period, it is worth highlighting the spiritual quests of F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, V. S. Solovyov, S. N. Bulgakov, N. A. Berdyaev and other prominent Russian thinkers who paid great attention to moral issues. As S. N. Bulgakov wrote at the beginning of the 20th century, today, of all philosophical problems ethical problem comes to the fore and exerts a decisive influence on the entire development of philosophical thought.

Philosophy is traditionally considered to include ontology (the science of being), epistemology (the science of knowledge) and ethics (the science of morality).

Ethics is not only a normative science, prescribing how to act in certain cases, but also a theoretical teaching, explaining the nature of morality, the complex and contradictory world of moral relations, the highest aspirations of man.

“What the great moralists have in common can be reduced to the following points: they are united in understanding

1) purpose of morality;

2) the relationship between the moral duties of a person and his desire for happiness;

3) the nature of the relationship between the individual and society;

4) the fundamental possibility of the prospects for the moral transformation of man.

1) The great moralists see the purpose of morality in achieving such a community, such an agreement between people, which would be an expression and continuation of their right to a worthy and happy life. As a matter of fact, they call morality itself that which, in a negative aspect, opposes violence, lies, and all other factors that belittle and divide people, and in a positive aspect, serves as a source of their mutually respectful solidarity. Eliminate enmity and strive for harmony in interpersonal relations, within which the development of one personality becomes a condition for the development of all others - such is the purpose of morality. This can be achieved if, in dealing with other people, one is guided by those rules that each one finds best and would like to see applied to himself. The first among the great moralists, who are rightfully called the teachers of mankind, reduce the main content of morality to the golden rule of morality, and many of them give this rule the laconic, classically completed formulation in which it has come down to our days. The understanding of morality in their teachings coincides with the natural morality that each person finds in his "heart".

2) No need to search for sophisticated formulas of morality, it is elementary in its content. Great moralists do not come to this conclusion in order to profane morality. Quite the opposite: they elevate it to the fundamental principle of life. They believe that the conflict between morality and happiness can only be resolved if the latter is subordinated to the former. There is an objective, the only true order of goods in the world: the spiritual is higher than the material, the moral duties of a person are higher than his desire for personal well-being. Higher not in the sense that we must first take care of the body, so that later we can perfect the soul, just as we go through the lower rungs of the ladder to get to the upper ones. And not in the sense that more time and effort should be devoted to the moral state of the soul than to the physical state of the body. Great moralists attach absolute importance to spiritual and moral values ​​(hence the combination of the idea of ​​morality with the idea of ​​God characteristic of many of them) and consider them as the only foundation that gives meaning to all human aspirations. Light can have different degrees of intensity, but in all manifestations it ascends to the sun as its only source. In the same way, human goods, no matter how different they may be, ascend to morality and only thanks to this acquire a quality that makes it possible to consider them good, worthy goals of activity. Therefore, the task is to be constantly connected to this beneficial source. The spiritual and moral duties of a person are higher than his desire for personal well-being in that very special sense that only through spiritual and moral duties and within their framework can a person gain real personal well-being. The dilemma of morality and happiness is removed due to the fact that happiness is seen as a consequence of morality. Whoever strives to be moral understands correctly and securely secures his own advantage. Morality is the highest reality in the sense of the authenticity of being. And in this capacity it is the only axiological reality. From the point of view of moralists, morality rules in the world of human goals,

3) As for the contradiction between the intimacy of the personal expression of the maral, by virtue of which it acts as a force that elevates the individual to the level of the subject of an individually responsible existence, and its (morality) universal validity, universality, due to which it turns out to be the only reliable basis for all-human solidarity, then it can only get permission if it moves from the individual to society. The great moralists proceeded and with their teachings set a perspective in which relations between people appear as a secondary result of their conscious aspirations for personal self-improvement, are a form of their spiritual and moral community. They asserted the priority of the individual over society, the moral autonomy of individuals. This also applies to those of them who inscribed morality in a religious context: although in the teachings Moses, Jesus Christ, Muhammad morality appears as a set of unconditional supra-individual requirements, nevertheless they express the will of a perfect and unique personality in its perfection - God; in addition, it is believed that the one who formulated these commandments for people, at the same time inscribed them in the heart of each of them. If there is a truth held sacred by all great moralists, then it is the inalienable right of every individual to speak in the name of morality and to be the subject of morally perfect relations between people. A person cannot live outside society - from this undeniable fact they draw the conclusion that society must be humane, morally oriented.

4) Morality sets a very definite - critically negative attitude towards the real world. The degree of tension between morality and the empirical being of individuals in different ethical programs is, of course, different. One could, for example, draw a distinction between moral-rigoristic ( Buddha, Jesus) and morally compromising ( Confucius, Muhammad ) programs; in certain respects it can be very important. Nevertheless, the doctrines under consideration are essentially the same: in all moralistic normative programs (that is why they are called moralistic) morality is considered as the truth of human existence. All of them analyze the life of people in the perspective of the final triumph of good. How, however, is such a celebration possible? The great moralists created certain, ethically significant life programs. As programs, they must be thought feasible, otherwise they would be no different from abstract intelligent systems. As ethical ones, they cannot be closed to a perspective that is visible and controlled by the individual, otherwise they would not differ from any judicial reform or other social and pragmatic projects. Ethical programs are feasible in principle. However, their implementation requires such inhuman efforts and a huge supply of time, such cardinal changes, including the reorganization of the cosmos and the reshaping of human nature itself, that it turns out to be more a matter of general faith than specific certainty. Moral renewal acts as a goal, but a goal of a special kind, which has neither a calculated time frame nor strict ways of its implementation, which is called upon to unite, give meaning and, as it were, complete all other human goals. It is designed to elevate all human existence to the level of moral being and, on this basis, to reconcile man with himself. To give life a moral meaning means for a person to become more than he really is. And not just get bigger, but get bigger in general. The moral perspective of being sets a very special system of coordinates, when the life of individuals is measured not by hours, meters and kilograms - indicators that go to a bad infinity and in any, arbitrarily large, their physical expression only emphasize the limitations of human capabilities - but by absolute values. Morality, as the great moralists understand it, is not just a path. This is the path to eternity. In morality and through morality, human life is measured with God. Anything can be said about the teachings of the great moralists, you can call them illusory, cruel, hypocritical or some other more offensive words, but it cannot be denied that they express one undoubted truth: only in a moral perspective is the natural existence of individuals transformed into historical becoming, naturalness - into culture. There is no history without morality, unless, of course, the latter is reduced to a kind of historical zoology, to a chronicle of wars, methods of production, scientific discoveries, etc., but is understood as the real history of people - the process of human improvement.

The position of the great moralists on the question of the ways and timing of the moral renewal of the world cannot be judged by the criteria of scientific foresight. They do not answer the question of what will happen. They talk about what needs to be done. They emphasize: moral renewal is a task (program, goal) that is called upon to become the unifying basis and focus of all human efforts and the degree of reality of which will depend entirely on these efforts. Each of the moralists could say about his ethical program that it is quite real and feasible if people are intelligent enough to accept it and persistent enough to follow it.

Huseynov A.A., Great prophets and thinkers. Moral teachings from Moses to the present day, M., Veche, 2009, p. 369-373.