The critical volume of sales production in physical and value terms is a task. Determination of a critical point and a given volume of production Determine the critical volume of output and sales of products

Critical production volume ( ) - the volume of production and sales of products, in which the enterprise has neither profit nor loss.

Calculation of critical production volume carried out according to the following formula:

where - fixed costs for the manufacture of products, rub.;

Unit price, rub.;

Variable costs for the manufacture of a unit of production, rub.;

variable costs are depending on the volume of production, they include: direct costs - the cost of basic materials, the general wage fund of the main production workers; the cost of power electricity, the cost of water for production purposes. That. the value of variable costs is determined by the formula:

W lane = 1 216 180 + 2 911 971,7 +64442,37 = 4 192 594,07

Variable costs for the manufacture of a unit of production are determined by the formula:

W per. units = 4 192 594,07/119000 = 35,23

Fixed costs are calculated as follows:

3 fast = 64 276 566,03-4 192 594,07 = 60 083 971,96

The price of a unit of production is calculated by the formula:

C unit = 540,13*1,3 = 702,17

AT kr = 60 083 971,96/666,94 = 90 089,02

Building a break-even point chart

After calculating the critical volume, a break-even point chart is built.

When plotting a graph (Figure 4.1), the volume of production in units of products is plotted along the horizontal axis, and along the vertical? production costs and income. Costs are deferred with division into fixed and variable.

In addition to the lines of fixed and variable costs, the graph displays gross costs and revenue from product sales, which is determined by the formula:

Break-even point - the point of intersection of the lines of revenue and gross costs, must coincide with the critical volume

Figure 4.1 - Schedule for determining the critical volume of production

Conclusion

This work allowed to gain experience in calculating the cost of production at an industrial enterprise. In the course of the work, knowledge was obtained of finding the wages of the workers of the main enterprise, auxiliary workers, management personnel, specialists and narrowing. Also, knowledge was gained on calculating the costs of fixed and variable assets of the enterprise. At the end of the work, the cost per unit of product was obtained, as well as the critical volume of production was found and a break-even graph was built.

Critical sales volume (Break-evenSales) is the volume of products, the income from the sale of which exactly covers the total costs of its production and sale, thereby providing zero profit. In other words, the next unit of production, sold in excess of the critical sales volume, will bring profit to the company, while the sale of previous units was only to cover costs.

Determining the critical volume of sales is of practical importance in cases where the price level for products does not provide the company with a profit from sales, or when low demand for products makes it impossible to sell such a quantity that would be sufficient to exceed revenues over costs.

The total costs can be divided into two groups: conditionally fixed (due to the very fact of the company's life and practically do not depend on how large the volume of production is.

The proceeds from the sale of the next unit of production, relatively speaking, go to cover variable costs, i.e. the costs directly associated with this unit, and part of the semi-fixed costs, and therefore it is clear that the greater the relative value of the semi-fixed costs in the total cost, the greater the volume of production must be produced. The value of the critical sales volume largely depends on the cost structure, i.e., ceteris paribus, an increase in the technical equipment of the company, an increase in the number and equipment of the management apparatus, an increase in advertising and marketing costs, the appearance of additional non-production costs, etc. entail growth of critical volume of sales.

This shows that any changes in the activities of the company that are costly in nature should be analyzed from the standpoint of their impact on the value of the critical sales volume, at least in terms of whether it is possible to increase production volumes or new costs will be covered by the existing marginal profit (a kind of accumulated " fat"). The famous accountant I. Sher (JohannF. Schar, 1846-1924) suggested calling the critical volume of sales a "dead point"; the meaning of such a name is obvious.

There are three interrelated methods for calculating the break-even point - analytical, graphical, calculation of the specific gross margin.

Analytical method. The name of the method is conditional, and it is based on an obvious dependence

S=VC+FC+ EBIT, (5)

S- sales in value terms;

VC- variable production costs;

FC- semi-fixed production costs;

EBIT- Operating profit.

Passing to natural units, formula (5) can be transformed as follows:

pQ = vQ + FC + EBIT, (6)

Q- sales volume in kind;

R- unit price of production;

v- variable production costs per unit of output.

At the break-even point, by definition, profit is zero, i.e. EBIT= 0, therefore, from formula (6) one can find the corresponding sales volume (in natural units), called critical (Qc).

Qc = FC / p – v , (7)

The above formula is one of the basic ones in the system of intra-company analysis and can be used both in retrospective analysis and in planning and analytical work. When planning, setting the values ​​of the initial factors (price, conditionally fixed and variable costs), it is possible to calculate the minimum volume of production necessary to cover the costs, i.e., ensuring the break-even of financial and economic activities.

The graphical method is convenient for illustrating the relationship between the indicators involved in the calculation of the break-even point by the analytical method. The graphic representation of the model, which characterizes the logic of the relationship of indicators that form the value of the critical sales volume, is shown in the figure.

Calculation of specific gross margin. This method is a consequence of the analytical method. The denominator of the fraction in formula (14.3), called specific gross margin, or contribution(in English literature - contribution), characterizes the amount of profit before depreciation, interest and taxes (EBITDA) per unit of production (in rare situations, the profit margin indicator can be used instead of EBITDA). Another interpretation of this indicator, widely used in management accounting and financial management, and explaining its name "contribution" can be given: it gives a quantitative assessment of the contribution of an additional unit of production to the amount of generated gross margin (EBITDA), or marginal profit. As the volume of production increases, the total contribution should fully cover the semi-fixed costs and ensure the generation of profit.

Thus, the economic meaning of the “dead center” is extremely simple: it characterizes the number of units of production, the sale of which will provide a gross margin (or marginal profit), exactly equal to the sum of semi-fixed costs.

So, having studied the main methods for calculating the critical sales volume, we can conclude that these methods are interrelated and complement each other.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

State educational institution of higher professional education

St. Petersburg State Forest Engineering Academy

named after S.M. Kirov

Faculty of Economics and Management

Department of Forest Policy, Economics and Management

Control work on the discipline "Economics of the forest sector"

Completed by a student of FEU, 2nd year, c / o, usk.

Specialty No. 080502

Record book number 69103

Checked:

St. Petersburg

2010-2011
Table of contents

Task 2. 3

Task 3.4

Task 5.5

Task 6.6

Task 7. 7

Problem 8. 8

Task 9. 9

Task 10.9

Problem 11. 10

Problem 12. 11

Problem 13. 12

References.. 14

Task 2.

To increase the efficiency and sustainability of the industry, it is planned to increase the volume of production by 20%. The actual volume is 200 thousand units, the price of a C unit is 700 rubles, the unit cost is 580 rubles, incl. fixed costs - 40%.

Required

1. Determine the critical volume of production Q cr.

2. Find the change in profit.

3. Compare the percentage change in volume and profit; explain the reason for their ambiguous percentages.

The critical production volume is calculated by the formula

Q cr \u003d 3 P0S / C-3 st lane

where 3 st lane - variable costs per unit; 3 П0С - fixed costs for volume, rub.

200 * 700 \u003d 140,000 thousand rubles. (revenue)

200 * 580 = 116,000 thousand rubles (total costs)

116000 * 0.4 \u003d 46400 thousand rubles. (permanent)

116000 * 0.6 \u003d 69600 thousand rubles. (variables)

140000 - 116000 = 24000 thousand rubles (profit)

Qcr \u003d 46400 / 700 - 348 \u003d 131.818 thousand units.

220 * 700 \u003d 154,000 thousand rubles. (revenue)

220 * 348 = 76560 thousand rubles. (variables)

46400 + 76560 - 154000 = 31040 thousand rubles. (profit)

The volume of production increased by 9.1%, and profit by 22.7%. They are not unambiguous, because with an increase in production, fixed costs in the total share decrease.

Task 3

Using the marginal characteristics (marginal cost - I p, marginal income - D p), establish the feasibility of increasing production by 20% under the following conditions:

Production volume - 100 thousand units,

The actual price is 700 rubles,

It is planned to increase the actual price by 5%,

The actual cost is 580 rubles, including fixed costs - 230 rubles.

The following expression testifies to the expediency of increasing the volume of production: And p is less than or equal to D p

Marginal cost is calculated using the formula

And n \u003d And 2 - And 1 / Q 2 - Q 1 \u003d delta I / delta Q

And n \u003d 65000 - 58000 / 120 - 100 \u003d delta 7000 / delta 20 \u003d 350

Marginal revenue is calculated using the formula

D p \u003d D 2 - D 1 / Q 2 - Q 1 \u003d delta D / delta Q

D p \u003d 88200 - 70000 / 120 - 100 \u003d delta 18200 / delta 20 \u003d 910

910 (I p) less than or equal to 350 (D p)

It is advisable to increase the volume of production.

Task 4

The processing industry of the district plans to use the waste. The volume of raw materials is 50 thousand units, the price of a unit of raw materials is 800 rubles, the output of products from raw materials is 50%. Waste is expected to be sold at a price of 300 rubles. for a unit. Waste disposal costs - 80% of their price. The share of useful waste is 40% of the volume of raw materials. Useful marketable waste reduces the cost of the main products.

How much will the industry profit from using waste?

50 - 50% \u003d 25 thousand units - output.

25 * 800 = 20,000 thousand rubles - the cost of production.

50 * 0.4 = 20 thousand units - useful waste.

20 * 300 \u003d 6000 thousand rubles. - cost of waste.

6000 * 0.8 = 4800 thousand rubles waste sales costs.

6000 - 4800 \u003d 1200 thousand rubles. profit from waste.

Profit will increase by 1200 thousand rubles. Or 6%.

Task 5

The cost of production is 400 rubles, incl.

Remuneration - 120 rubles, of which the remuneration of managers - 50%,

Depreciation - 60 rubles,

Material costs - 160 rubles,

Others - 60 rubles, of which fixed costs - 50%. The planned production volume is 10 thousand units. Required

1. Establish an economic and mathematical relationship between the cost of production and the volume of production.

2. Find the critical volume of production.

3. Determine the zone of financial stability.

200 thousand rubles - fixed costs.

200 thousand rubles - variable costs.

C \u003d a * Q + b \u003d 0.02 * 10 thousand units. + 200 = 400 thousand rubles.

C beats \u003d a + b / Q \u003d 400 / 10 thousand units. = 0.04 rub.

400 * 1.2 \u003d 480 - revenue.

480 rub. / 10 thousand units = 0.048 rub. – unit price.

200 / 0.048 - 0.02 = 7143 units - critical volume of production.

10000 - 7143 = 2857 units – zone of financial stability.

480 - 343 / 480 \u003d 0.29 or 29% - the zone of financial stability.

Task 6

In 2006, the profitability of the products of the industry processing raw materials by mechanical means amounted to 15.3%.

The profitability of the products of the industry that processes raw materials by chemical means in the same year was 32.4%.

What is the level of profitability of the products of the logging industry, all other things being equal?

The profitability of the products of the logging industry, most likely, should be positive, since the profitability of the products of the industry that processes raw materials is quite good (they form a chain). The profitability of the products of the logging industry in 2000 was 4.6%, and in 2003. – 1.3%. It often happens that Russia escorts unprocessed wood, and returns products of deep processing, the cost of which is 12-15 times higher than the cost of raw materials. Therefore, we can conclude that the level of profitability of the products of the logging industry is not as high as compared to the processing industry.

Task 7

Determine the effect of increasing the level of technical and technological equipment of production in the industry based on the information below.

Production volume - 200 thousand units.

Actual labor productivity - 500 units per year. It is planned to increase labor productivity by 30%. The actual level of the annual wages of a worker is 160 thousand rubles. The increase in the worker's wages is accepted by the student independently according to the theory of outstripping growth of labor productivity in comparison with wages.

The effect of increasing the level of technical and technological equipment of production E is determined by the formula

E \u003d Q * (Z e bases - Z e pl), where Z e bases, Z e pl - respectively, the basic and planned wages per unit of output.

200000 / 500 = 400 - workers

400 * 160 = 64000 - salary

500 * 1.3 = 650 - increased labor productivity by 30%.

650 * 400 = 260000 - production volume

The annual salary of a worker is 184 thousand rubles. (+24 thousand rubles or 15%).

Task8

The production program of the industry is 60% lower than the production capacity. Demand for the industry's products is not being met.

Specify the reasons for underutilization of production capacity. How long can the industry pursue such a policy without experiencing financial difficulties? What is the pricing policy of the industry?

The reasons for the underutilization of production capacity are that the enterprise was created with the expectation of a higher production volume and demand for these products. Questions arise whether the enterprise is profitable or not, how much the downtime costs and what is the profitability of unloaded capacity. If this is short-term downtime or seasonality, then it is possible

P Qk - Zvar Qk = Zconst; Qk (P - Zvar) = Zconst;

Marginal income for the entire issue is defined as the difference between revenue and the sum of variable costs.

2. Calculation of the critical volume of proceeds from sales. We multiply the previous equation by the price and get the necessary formula:

3. Calculation of the critical level of fixed costs. For the calculation, the original revenue formula is used:

N = Zconst + Zvar
Hence we have:

Zconst = N - Zvar = P Qk - Zvar Qk = Qk(P - Zvar) = Qk d
From the last formula, you can determine the amount of fixed costs if the level of marginal income is set as a percentage of the price of the tourist product or as a percentage of the sales volume (revenue). Then the formula for calculations will look like:

If the ratio between the value of marginal income and revenue (or between the value of marginal income per unit of tourism product and the price of the tourism product) is known, then the minimum price of the product can be determined by the formula

6. Calculation of the planned volume for a given amount of planned (expected) profit. If fixed costs, unit price, variable costs per unit, and the amount of estimated (desired) profit are known, then the sales volume is determined by the following formula:

This formula follows directly from the definition of marginal income as the sum of fixed costs and planned profit.

7. Calculation of the volume of sales that gives the same profit for different types of tourism products. The algebraic solution of the problem is contained in the following formula (analysis of two options):

(P1 - Zvar1) Qk - C1 = (P2 - Zvar2) Qk - C2
from which the calculation of the value of sales follows:

Where C1, C2 - fixed costs for various options;
d1, d2 - marginal income per unit of tourism product for various options.

Let's carry out a break-even analysis using direct costing on a specific example.

Example. One enterprising student decided to make money by selling souvenirs to tourists - nesting dolls. After making inquiries, she learned that she would have to pay 10 rubles for a sales license. and that the rent for a place for trading will be 140 rubles. For one nesting doll with the right to return unsold goods, the student must pay 3 rubles. The student decided that 8 rubles would be a suitable price for a nesting doll.

Naturally, she was worried about the question of whether this enterprise would be profitable. As a first step, she decided to calculate the number of nesting dolls that she needed to sell in order not to incur losses:

Revenue from sales (sales) \u003d Variable costs + Fixed costs + Profit (loss)

Since at the break-even point the profit (loss) is zero, then

Revenue from sales (sales) \u003d Variable costs + Fixed costs

If we denote the number of nesting dolls that must be sold in order not to incur losses, through X, then we get

8 X = 3 X + 150 RUB where Sales \u003d Selling price (8 rubles) X; Variable costs \u003d Variable costs per unit of goods (3 rubles) X;

From the equation we get 5 X \u003d 150 rubles, from here X \u003d 30 pcs.

Thus, in order not to incur losses, you need to sell 30 nesting dolls. The required number of matryoshka dolls to be sold is important information, since the student needs to estimate the probability of such a quantity of demand that would make the sale profitable.

Suppose a student decides that she needs a profit from the sale of 400 rubles. How many nesting dolls need to be sold to achieve this goal?

Revenue from sales (sales) \u003d Variable costs + Fixed costs + Profit

8 X \u003d 3 X + 150 rubles. + 400 rubles;

X (8 - 3) = 550 rubles

Hence X = 110 pieces. So, the sale of 110 nesting dolls will give a profit of 400 rubles.

This approach can be applied to enterprises that sell one type of product (work, service). In practice, the company sells a lot of goods, and the break-even analysis of sales in physical terms becomes useless, so the sales volume is calculated in value terms.

Suppose a student decided to sell, in addition to nesting dolls, products made from Gzhel, Khokhloma and Vologda lace. If we denote the proceeds from sales in rubles at the break-even point through Y, then we get:

Y= Share of variable costs Y+ Fixed costs;

Y \u003d 0.375 Y + 150 rubles.
The share of variable costs (D) is determined from the proportion:

Solving the equation, we get 0.625 Y \u003d 150 rubles. Hence Y = 240 rubles, i.e., the sales volume at the break-even point is 240 rubles.

On fig. 3.2 reflects the results obtained above. The different nature of the behavior of variable (production) and fixed (periodic) costs is clearly visible.

The lower the level of fixed costs, the less sales needed to cover them, and the lower the break-even point.

At the breakeven point:

Sales 240 rub. (100%)
Fixed costs 150 rubles. (62%)
Variable costs 90 rubles. (38%)
Profit 0

Another break-even analysis technique that can provide additional insight into the relationship between sales volume, costs, and profits is the marginal income method.

Marginal income is what remains of the net selling price after deducting variable costs. From marginal income, fixed costs should be reimbursed first, and the remainder will be profit from sales.

The selling price of one matryoshka is 8 rubles.
Variable costs for one nesting doll 3 rubles.
Marginal income 5 rubles.

Since each unit of production (matryoshka) covers fixed costs and then makes a profit from sales in the amount of 5 rubles, the break-even point in units of production will be equal to:

Thus, after the sale of 30 nesting dolls, fixed (periodic) expenses will be reimbursed and each additionally sold unit of production will bring a marginal profit equal to 5 rubles.

Recall another definition of marginal income: marginal profit is the additional income from the sale of one additional unit of output. When expressing the break-even point in valuation, the formula does not use the marginal profit, but the marginal profit ratio.

marginal profit ratio- percentage calculated as follows:

The break-even point in value terms is calculated as follows:

Note that break-even analysis cannot be effectively applied in cases of sharp and frequent fluctuations in sales prices and production costs.

From a simple example, let's move on to more general conclusions that can be drawn from the break-even analysis.

Leverage of margin analysis. Fixed (periodic) costs are closely related to the "leverage" indicator. The term "leverage" comes from the word "lever", meaning "lever".

Archimedes owns the words: "Give me a fulcrum, and I will turn the world." They are told about the possibilities of the lever in physics. In fact, both in physics and in finance, the possibilities of leverage are not so great, although they are of significant importance.

The fixed costs of an operating enterprise are the basic element of the concept of operating (production) leverage. As long as the profit received by the enterprise is insufficient to cover fixed costs, it suffers losses. Once a level of production has been reached that covers fixed costs, any increase in production will increase profits.

Let's consider the effect of operating (production) leverage on an example.

Example. The enterprise has the following cost structure: fixed costs - 100 thousand rubles; share of variable costs - 60%

Table data. 3.2 show profit (loss) at increasing levels of sales and relative changes in sales volume and profitability.
Table 3.2 Dependence of profit on changes in sales volume

According to the data above, starting from the break-even point, the first 20% increase in sales results in a significant increase in profits, since the increase starts from zero. The next 20% increase in sales increases profit by 120% compared to the previous level, and a further increase in sales only 65% ​​compared to the previous level.

The leverage effect decreases as sales volume increases from breakeven, as the base against which the increase in earnings is compared gradually becomes larger. Leverage certainly works both ways. Note that as a result of a drop in sales from 200 to 100 thousand rubles, i.e., by 50%, the enterprise suffers losses in a threefold amount.

An important takeaway from this example is that businesses operating in the immediate vicinity of the break-even point will have a relatively large share of the change in profit or loss per given change in volume. Above the breakeven point this volatility will of course be desirable, below it may lead to unfavorable results that are significantly worse than those that reflect changes in sales volume alone.

Operating leverage formula:

So, an increase in sales changes operating leverage, which decreases as you move away from the breakeven point, because fixed costs become relatively smaller compared to sales and variable costs. Operating leverage shows the degree of influence of efforts to increase sales on the growth of profit from the sale of products (works, services). If the firm's operating leverage is large, then even a small increase in sales will lead to a significant increase in profits, but at the same time, a small decrease in sales can negate profits.

Thus, although a business incurs fixed costs in order to increase capacity or reduce variable costs, it is often advisable for a business to reduce fixed costs to mitigate the risk associated with a high break-even point.

Funding leverage (interest - charges leverage). This type of leverage occurs when a firm borrows at interest.

Funding Leverage Formula:

Combined leverage(combined leverage). To measure the cumulative impact of both types of leverage, an assessment is applied using the combined leverage formula:

Direct costing is of great importance for managing and analyzing the activities of an enterprise, in particular, for making decisions on assortment policy, as well as on closing or declaring bankruptcy in case of unprofitable activities.

Let's take an example of how the use of direct costing can contribute to making decisions about the range of tourism products sold.

According to Table. 3.3, tourism product II has low profitability (profitability). However, before abandoning the formation and implementation of this tourism product, it is necessary to conduct the following analysis. To make a profit, it is important that the amount of revenue exceeds the amount of variable costs.

To do this, it is advisable to use indicators such as the amount of coverage and the coverage ratio.
Table 3.3 Indicators of the financial and economic activities of the company

* Average coverage, or marginal profit, is the additional income from the sale of one additional unit of a tour product.
** The distribution of fixed costs by type of tourism product is made in proportion to variable costs.

Amount of coverage called the difference between the proceeds from sales and the total amount of variable costs. The calculation of the amount of coverage allows you to determine how much money a tourist organization earns by forming and selling a tourist product in order to recoup fixed costs and make a profit.

coverage ratio called the share of the amount of coverage in the proceeds from sales or the share of the average amount of coverage in the price of the tourist product.

The coverage ratio is defined as follows:

In order to determine at what volume of sales the gross costs of the enterprise will pay off, it is necessary to calculate the break-even point, which is understood as such sales revenue or such sales volume of tourism products that cover all costs and zero profit.

The sales revenue corresponding to the break-even point is called threshold revenue, and the volume of sales (sales) at the break-even point - threshold sales volume(sales).

Let's use the break-even point formula:

So, the break-even point in value terms is calculated as the ratio of fixed costs to the coverage ratio, and in physical terms - as the ratio of fixed costs to the average coverage.

If a tourist organization receives more than the threshold revenue from sales (124.5 thousand rubles - 78.6 thousand rubles), then it works profitably. To assess how much actual revenue exceeds break-even revenue, you need to calculate the margin of safety (percentage deviation of actual revenue from the threshold) using the following formula:

To determine the impact of a change in sales proceeds on a change in profit, the indicator of operating leverage (production leverage) is calculated using the formula:

The higher the effect of production leverage, the more risky in terms of profit volatility is the position of the firm. Since the company has in its assortment a tour product II with a low profitability at full cost, let's see how the organization's profit will change if this type of tour product is abandoned. In case of refusal to form and sell tourist product II, the proceeds from the sale will be reduced by the amount of proceeds from the sale of this product: 124.5 thousand rubles. -- 72 thousand rubles. = 52.5 thousand rubles.

At the same time, the gross costs of the enterprise will also be reduced by the amount of variable costs necessary for the formation of the tourist product P, by the amount of 54 thousand rubles. (114 thousand rubles - 60 thousand rubles). Since fixed costs do not depend on the volume of sales, the refusal to form a tourist product II will not affect their value. So, in case of refusal to form a tourist product II, the tourist organization will have losses: -1.5 thousand rubles. (52.5 thousand rubles - 54 thousand rubles). And the total losses will be equal to 2.3 thousand rubles. (0.8 thousand rubles + 1.5 thousand rubles), where 0.8 thousand rubles. - direct lost profit.

Thus, having information only about the full cost, you can make the wrong decision and lose profit. Using direct costing allows you to avoid such mistakes and make reasonable management decisions.

According to Table. 3.3, the average coverage for tourism product III is even lower than for tourism product P. Therefore, with a reduction in demand in the tourism market, it is more profitable for a company to abandon the formation of tourism product III than from other types of tourism product.

These are the main provisions of costs and profit optimization in the direct costing system.

Ideal systems do not exist. Each of them has its own advantages and disadvantages. The main task is to understand the features of each method so that, leveling the negative aspects, to use their positive advantages as efficiently as possible.

It should be noted that at most Western enterprises the "direct costing" system is used in parallel, taking into account the full cost.

Modern domestic companies that prefer accounting based on economic indicators find in the course of their work that direct costing seems to be a better way than costing with full cost allocation. The division of costs into fixed and variable allows you to control variable cost items based on their relationship with each unit of production, and fixed cost items - based on their actual total value for the reporting period. Variable costing allows you to control and set the level of profitability and calculate such a cost that, in today's conditions of the enterprise's operation on the market, could provide it with a certain profit. Combining the methods of costing, accounting for production results and their analysis allows you to make reasonable management decisions in a competitive environment.

So, on the basis of the completeness of the inclusion of costs in the cost, there are two ways to group and include costs in the cost of services. Let's consider them with an example.

Example. The tour operator has the following economic performance indicators:

The cost of one tour package for the reporting period is 454 thousand rubles / 1000 units. = 454 rubles / piece

The cost of selling services for the reporting period, calculated in the traditional way, will be: 514 rubles / piece. x 900 pcs. = = 462.6 thousand rubles

By the method of "direct costang": 454 rubles / pcs. x 900 pcs. = 408.6 thousand rubles.

The cost of tourist and excursion vouchers, which will be attributed to the balance of annual production at the end of the reporting period:

The method of calculating the total cost: 514 thousand rubles - 462.6 thousand rubles. = 51.4 thousand rubles;

· direct-costing method: 454 thousand rubles. - 408.6 thousand rubles. = = 45.4 thousand rubles

For taxation purposes, we calculate advertising costs in excess of the norm, not included in the cost of tourist and excursion vouchers. Note that the cost of the formed tourist product I is exempt from VAT. 50 thousand rubles - 810 thousand rubles. x 6% = 50 thousand rubles. - 48.6 thousand rubles. = = 1.4 thousand rubles.

Profit from sales, calculated in the traditional way, will be: 810 thousand rubles. - 462.6 thousand rubles. - 70 thousand rubles. = = 277.4 thousand rubles

Direct-costing method: 810 thousand rubles. - 408.6 thousand rubles. - - 60 thousand rubles. - 70 thousand rubles. = 271.4 thousand rubles.

Gross profit serves as the basis for the formation of the object of taxation by income tax, this is the tax aspect of the concept of "cost".

In our example, gross profit consists only of profit from the sale of services.

When determining income tax, the taxable base of profit is preliminarily adjusted by the amount of advertising expenses in excess of the norms:

1. 277.4 thousand rubles. + 1.4 thousand rubles. = 278.8 thousand rubles;

2. 278.8 thousand rubles. x 0.35% \u003d 97.58 thousand rubles.

When calculating using the "direct costing" method, the income tax will be:

1. 271.4 thousand rubles. + 1.4 thousand rubles. = 272.8 thousand rubles;

2. 272.8 thousand rubles. x 0.35% = 95.48 thousand rubles.

The company's savings on income tax when using the "direct costing" method will be: 97.58 thousand rubles. - 95.48 thousand rubles. = = 2.1 thousand rubles

Distribution of indirect costs

The tax legislation puts forward the requirement of separate accounting for the costs of production and sale by type of activity and type of product (work, service). This requirement is contained in the Instruction of the State Tax Service of the Russian Federation dated 10.08.95 No. 37 "On the procedure for calculating and paying tax on the profits of enterprises and organizations to the budget" and in the Instruction of the State Tax Service of the Russian Federation dated 11.10.95 No. 39 "On the procedure for calculating and paying in value added tax budget.

The need for separate cost accounting is determined by a number of reasons:

· for different types of activities, different income tax rates are applied - the income tax rate for tour operator activities is 30%, the income tax rate for intermediary operations, i.e. for travel agency activities, is 38%;

To confirm the right to a privilege on value added tax and income tax, the Instruction of the State Tax Service of the Russian Federation No. 37 establishes that if an enterprise has several types of activities for which different income tax rates are established, for example, a tourist organization sells its own tours (tour operator activity ) and sells other people's tourist vouchers under intermediary agreements (travel agency activity), then income tax is calculated on profit from each type of activity at the appropriate rates, regardless of the results of the activity as a whole.

The accountant of an enterprise carrying out several types of activities, the profit from which is taxed at different income tax rates, must ensure:

Separate accounting of proceeds from sales for different types of activities;

separate accounting of direct costs;

· Distribution of indirect (general production and general business) expenses for various types of activities.

Example. The region has the following income tax rates, %:

Proceeds from the sale of products for the main activity for the reporting period, including VAT - 300 thousand rubles, including VAT - 20 thousand rubles. Direct costs for core activities amounted to 160 thousand rubles. In addition, in the reporting period, the tourist organization sold other people's tourist vouchers under a commission agreement without participation in settlements, while the commission received by the enterprise amounted to 48 thousand rubles, including VAT - 8 thousand rubles. Direct costs of conducting an intermediary operation - 5 thousand rubles. General business and general production expenses for the reporting period as a whole for the enterprise amounted to 29 thousand rubles.

1. We determine the share of indirect (general and general production) expenses related to the main activity:

2. We determine the share of indirect (general and general production) costs related to intermediary activities:

3. Financial result for the main activity:

300 thousand rubles - 20 thousand rubles. - 160 thousand rubles. - 25 thousand rubles. = 95 thousand rubles.

4. Financial result from carrying out intermediary operations:

48 thousand rubles - 8 thousand rubles. - 5 thousand rubles. - 4 thousand rubles. = 31 thousand rubles.

5. Balance sheet profit for the whole enterprise:

95 thousand rubles + 31 thousand rubles. = 126 thousand rubles.

6. Determine the amount of income tax for the main activity in the absence of tax benefits:

95 thousand rubles x 30% = 28.5 thousand rubles

7. Determine the amount of tax on profit from intermediary activities in the absence of tax benefits:

31 thousand rubles x 38% = 11.78 thousand rubles.

The following entry is made in accounting:

Many problems arise for accountants when deciding on the use of income tax benefits in an enterprise that carries out several types of activities.

The Instruction of the State Tax Service of the Russian Federation of August 10, 1995 No. 37 contains the following instruction on this matter: "If an enterprise has activities, the profit from which is taxed at different rates, then income tax benefits are distributed in proportion to the proceeds received from each type of activity in the total amount of proceeds from the sale of products (works, services).

So, in accounting, costs should be divided into two groups:

1. Related to taxable activities (intermediary and additional services). It should be noted that the amounts of VAT paid on goods (works, services) used in the manufacture of products and the provision of services that are not exempt from VAT are subject to offset in accordance with the generally established procedure.

2. Related to non-taxable activities (the formation of a tourist product and resale). In accordance with paragraphs 20 and 21 of the Instruction of the State Tax Service of the Russian Federation of October 11, 1995, No. 39, VAT paid on goods, works, services used in the manufacture of products and the implementation of operations exempt from tax in accordance with subparagraphs "e" - "sh" p. 1 art. 5 of the Law of the Russian Federation "On value added tax", refers to the costs of production and distribution.

If the organization carries out several types of activities, then with the practical impossibility of ensuring separate accounting for "input" VAT on taxable and non-taxable turnovers, the question arises of choosing the basis for distributing the amounts of VAT recorded on account 19 "VAT on acquired valuables" for the amounts included in the cost price, and amounts attributable to the reduction of payments to the budget.

Currently, no regulatory document defines the basis for dividing the opening balance on account 19. Therefore, this base can be declared as an element of accounting policy.

The opinion of the Ministry of Finance of Russia in choosing the basis for distributing the incoming balance on account 19 is expressed in a letter dated 09.10.97 No. 04-07-07. The letter is a response to a request from NAUFOR (National Association of Stock Market Participants); in the Ministry of Justice it is not registered, not published and has the status of official correspondence. In accordance with this letter, VAT should be accepted for offset in the amount corresponding to the share of sales turnover received from taxable transactions in the total amount of sales turnover for the reporting period. In this case, the sales turnover is considered to be the entire amount of proceeds received from the sale of products, work performed, services rendered, excluding VAT.

An element of the accounting policy is the distribution base and the procedure for writing off VAT on acquired valuables if tourist organizations carry out several types of activities with different taxation regimes. In addition, an element of the accounting policy is the procedure for accounting for and refunding VAT on acquired fixed assets in the presence of activities that are taxable and not taxable with value added tax.

According to paragraph 47 of the Instruction of the State Tax Service of the Russian Federation of October 11, 1995 No. 39, the amounts of VAT paid on the acquisition of fixed assets and intangible assets are fully deducted from the amounts of tax payable to the budget at the time of registration of fixed assets and intangible assets . Fixed assets and intangible assets used in the production of goods (works, services) exempt from VAT in accordance with subparagraphs "c", "sh", "s", "z" of paragraph 1 of Art. 5 of the Law of the Russian Federation "On value added tax", are reflected in the accounting at the cost of acquisition, including the amount of tax paid.

The right to a refund (offset) of VAT amounts paid on the acquisition of fixed assets, if there are types of activities subject to VAT and not subject to VAT, is possible subject to the complete separation of fixed assets, and, consequently, the costs of their acquisition used in various types of activities.

If it is objectively impossible to ensure separate accounting of costs for fixed assets or their distribution, the acquired fixed assets for production purposes can be reflected in accounting at the acquisition cost, including the amount of VAT paid, with subsequent write-off in the prescribed manner through the amount of depreciation charged.

Example. Let us consider the distribution of VAT on acquired valuables in proportion to income received from activities subject to and not subject to VAT. Suppose, for the reporting quarter, the amount of VAT on paid and rendered services amounted to 80 thousand rubles, on paid and registered fixed assets - 110 thousand rubles.

When allocating costs to VAT amounts paid, there are three options:

1. During the reporting period, only their own tour packages were sold (activities are exempt from VAT), then the following entry is made in accounting:

2. During the reporting period, they sold only other people's tourist vouchers under an agency agreement or provided additional services (activities are subject to VAT). In this case, the following entries are made in accounting:

3. During the reporting period, they sold both their own and other people's tour packages, and the non-taxable sales turnover amounted to 800 thousand rubles, and the taxable sales turnover without VAT was 200 thousand rubles. The total amount of sales turnover amounted to 1,000 thousand rubles.

Let's distribute the VAT in proportion to the volume of sales, i.e. in the proportion of 8:2.

The total amount of VAT on acquired valuables is: 80 thousand rubles. + 110 thousand rubles. = 190 thousand rubles. (or 100%). Then X = 152 thousand rubles. (80%); Y= 38 thousand rubles (20 %).

The following entries are made in accounting:

Maintaining separate cost accounting for each type of activity means: firstly, documenting business transactions, ensuring their attribution to one or another type of activity; secondly, a separate reflection of business transactions in accounting registers.

Compliance with these accounting rules involves:

description in the primary documents of the content of business transactions, which makes it possible to clearly attribute such an operation to a specific type of activity;

Maintaining for the generalization of primary accounting documents separate registers of synthetic accounting for each type of activity;

· keeping records of income and expenses for each type of activity on separate sub-accounts of the corresponding balance accounts.

The procedure for maintaining separate accounting of costs, including overhead costs, is determined by order of the Minister of Finance of the Russian Federation dated July 28, 1994 No. 100 "On Approval of the Accounting Regulations". In diversified organizations where there are several types of activities (tour operator and travel agency), indirect (general and general production) costs are previously subject to distribution between the objects of the types of activities according to one of the options:

1. in proportion to the sum of all direct costs by type of activity;

2. in proportion to the value of products at sales prices, i.e. in proportion to the amount of sales proceeds received from each type of activity in the total amount of sales proceeds, excluding VAT.

According to paragraph 2.10 of the instructions of the State Tax Service dated 10.08.95 No. 37 "On the procedure for calculating and paying tax on the profits of enterprises and organizations to the budget", the basis for the distribution of indirect costs should be the proceeds from the sale of products (works, services) received from various types of activities .

In the accounting policy of the company, it is necessary to highlight:

types of activities for which separate cost accounting is maintained;

· base of distribution of indirect (general economic and general production) expenses by types of activity.

Distribution of indirect costs by calculation objects. Further, indirect costs are distributed by calculation objects, i.e. by individual types of products (works, services) according to one of the following options:

1. in proportion to one type of direct costs, for example, in proportion to the wage fund (most widely used in industry);

2. in proportion to the total amount of direct costs (more often than other options it is used in tourist organizations). On average, the level of overhead costs for a tour operator ranges from 5 to 20% of the total amount of all direct costs;

3. in proportion to the standard values ​​of indirect costs. The normative value of indirect costs is taken from the analysis of actual indirect costs for the previous reporting period, for example, for 3 months, and subject to a uniform volume of sales of tourist services - by months or by seasons;

4. by the method of direct counting. Suppose the tour operator's indirect costs for the reporting period amounted to 30 thousand rubles. If during the reporting period it is planned to form and send only one group, then the entire amount (30 thousand rubles) when calculating this tour will be reflected in the calculation item, which is called "Overhead (indirect) costs of the tour operator";

5. in a differentiated way using a percentage.

The correct choice of the distribution base for indirect costs has a significant impact on determining the degree of profitability of certain types of products (works, services), while it should be borne in mind that in modern conditions the selling price is set by the market, and taxes are set by the state.

Thus, the process of allocation of indirect costs depends on two points:

prediction of their total value,

selection of the distribution base.

A lot of time and effort can go into allocating overhead costs. However, their actual value rarely coincides with the preliminary estimate of overhead costs, and therefore it almost always turns out that one has to deal with either incompletely allocated or over-allocated overhead costs, i.e. the amount of overheads allocated to tourism products will be less or more of the overhead costs actually incurred. And the accountant faces the task of quarterly or annual adjustments. If it is clear from the accounts that during the year the overhead costs were not fully distributed, i.e., the actual overhead costs exceeded the planned amount, therefore, the standard overhead ratio was slightly underestimated in forecasting. Therefore, it is necessary to add a certain amount to the overhead costs of the reporting period and increase the standard overhead ratio.

Functional Accounting

Functional accounting is a new national accounting method for allocating indirect costs to calculation objects.

Functional accounting is necessary for tourism organizations for two reasons:

1. a high degree of heterogeneity (diversity) of the tourist product, i.e., different types of overhead costs are absorbed by different tourist products to varying degrees;

2. the use of volume-dependent distribution bases (cost carriers) for the distribution of volume-independent indirect costs leads to a distortion of the cost of tourism products; moreover, the degree of distortion is determined by the share that falls on volume-independent indirect costs in the total amount of indirect costs.

The functional accounting system assumes that costs will be tracked first of all in relation to production functions and only then - in relation to calculation objects.

The fundamental difference between the traditional method of distributing indirect costs by calculation objects and functional accounting lies in the number of distribution bases (cost carriers) used.

Functional accounting uses a much larger number of indirect cost allocation bases than the traditional system. Essentially speaking, in functional accounting, overhead costs are divided into groups, and each group is characterized by its own cost carrier, different from the others. Then the group rate of indirect costs is determined for each grouping and for each cost carrier. As a result, due to this method, the accuracy of accounting increases.

The functional accounting system consists of two stages. At the first stage, indirect costs are distributed among groups of homogeneous costs. Under grouping of homogeneous costs is understood as a set of indirect costs, changes in indicators of which are attributed to one cost carrier (one distribution base).

Then it is determined group rate- indicator of costs per unit of the cost carrier (per unit of the value of the distribution base) for each grouping. During the second stage, the indirect costs for each grouping, attributable to the corresponding calculation object, are determined by multiplying the group rate by the value of the distribution base of indirect costs by calculation objects for the selected groupings.

Consider the distribution of indirect costs on a conditional example.

Example. In the sanatorium, the main services are treatment (L), food (P) and accommodation (L). We calculate the cost of services provided by the traditional method and using functional accounting (Table 3.4).
Table 3.4 Calculation of the cost of services provided, rub.

* For the base for the distribution of indirect costs by calculation objects, we take the indicator of sales revenue.
** Select the distribution bases (cost carriers) for each group. As a distribution base (cost bearer) of management costs for this example, the indicator of the wage fund (PWT) is taken due to the dependence of costs on the number and qualifications of personnel. The cost of washing laundry depends on the weight of the laundry, therefore, a natural indicator - the weight of the laundry - is taken as the distribution base.

It can be seen from the example that, without applying functional accounting, one can make a mistake in determining the cost. So, with traditional accounting, indirect costs for treatment turned out to be under-attributed (two times less), while the cost of living is overstated (twice) due to the redundancy of attributing general business costs.

Thanks to the use of functional accounting, the accuracy of determining the cost increases, this is due to the fact that a significant proportion of indirect costs does not depend on the volume of sales and is not due to it.

Thus, the following conclusions can be drawn:

· the use of a single distribution base (cost carrier) seems to be wrong;

· the use of exclusively volume-dependent distribution bases leads to the fact that the production of one type of product (works, services) subsidizes the production of another;

· Indicators of functional accounting adequately reflect the degree of absorption of costs and are the most accurate.

In market conditions, the availability of accurate information about costs is the most important prerequisite for the competent management of a tourism organization. The use of functional accounting makes it possible to improve the mechanism for making managerial decisions.

COSTS AND PRICING

ALL-RUSSIAN CORRESPONDENCE

FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC INSTITUTE

branch in

Test

By discipline: " Pricing»

Is done by a student:

Faculty: FIC

Group:

3 course

Checked:

Tasks

Task 1

Based on the given data, calculate and enter the following in the table.

1. Critical volume of production (sales) (in physical and value terms).

2. General variable costs.

3. Fixed costs per unit of output.

4. Changes for the second half of the year.

growth (decrease) in the II quarter.

Decision.

The critical volume of production is calculated by the formula:

Cr. volume = Const. Expenditure/(Price-Per. Exp.)

Cr. volume (1 sq.) = 840,000 / (600-560) = 21,000 pcs.

Cr. volume (1 sq.) \u003d 21,000 * 600 \u003d 12,600 thousand rubles.

Having calculated the volume of production, we can calculate the total variable costs and real fixed costs.

General variable costs for the I quarter. \u003d 560 × 21,000 \u003d 11,760 thousand rubles.

Real fixed costs for the I quarter. \u003d 840,000 / 21,000 \u003d 40 rubles / piece.

Let's calculate the same indicators for the II quarter. According to the condition of the problem, the total fixed costs increased by 7%. Based on this, we will make calculations.

Total fixed costs for II quarter. = 840 × 1.07 = 898.8 thousand rubles.

Cr. volume (2 sq.) \u003d 898,900 / (600 - 560) \u003d 22,472.5 pcs.

Cr. volume (2 sq.) \u003d 22,472.5 * 600 \u003d 13,483.5 thousand rubles.

Total variable costs for the II quarter. = 560 × 22,472.5 = 12,584.6 thousand rubles.

Real fixed costs for II quarter. \u003d 898 800 / 22472.5 \u003d 40 rubles / piece.

With an increase in fixed costs by 7%, the critical volume of production and total variable costs also increased by 7%.

Task 2

In the production of a unit of goods, the cost of raw materials and materials is 40 thousand rubles; electricity costs for technological purposes - 20 thousand rubles; wages of production workers - 28,400 rubles; payroll charges - 26%; the amount of general production and general business expenses is 25% of the cost of wages; selling expenses equal to 20% of the production cost; acceptable profitability - 20%; VAT - 18%. Wholesale markup - 10%, trade markup - 15%.

At what price will this type of product be sold? Create a retail price structure.

Decision.

Charges on salary = 28400 * 26% = 7,384 rubles.

Total labor costs 28400 + 7384 = 35,784 rubles.

General production and general household expenses = 35784 * 25% = 8946 rubles.

Prod. cost = 40,000 + 20,000 + 35,784 + 8946 = 104,730 rubles.

Commercial expenses \u003d 104,730 * 20% \u003d 20,946 rubles.

Total expenses \u003d 104,730 + 20,946 \u003d 125,676 rubles.

VAT \u003d 125,676 * 18% \u003d 22,622 rubles.

Price with wholesale markup = (125,676 + 22,622) * 1.1 = 163,128 rubles.

Price with trade markup = 163128 * 1.15 = 187,597 rubles.

Profitability \u003d P / V \u003d 20% \u003d P / (P * 1.18 * 1.1 * 1.15 + Expenses)

P=(1.5P+187597)*0.2=0.3P+187697*0.2 0.7P=37519.4

P=53 599 rub.

Retail price = 187,597 + 53599*1.18*1.1*1.15= 267,995

Profitability = 53,599/267,995 = 20%

Bibliography

1. Pricing. Guidelines for the performance of tests for independent work of students of the third year (first higher education) of the specialty 080105 "Finance and Credit" and the third year (first and second higher education) of the specialty 080111 "Marketing". - M.: VZFEI, 2009.

2. Pricing: textbook. allowance / D. A. Shevchuk. - M .: GrossMedia: ROSBUH, 2008. - 240 p.

3. Pricing: textbook / I.K. Salimzhanov. - M. : KNORUS,

4. http://market-pages.ru

5. http://www.vedomosti.ru

6. http://fmi.asf.ru

7. http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki

Tests

1. The price of goods in a market economy is determined by:

1) the amount of money spent on its purchase

2) the cost of the goods

3) the usefulness of the product

4) demand and supply of goods in the market.

Answer: 4) demand and supply of goods on the market (Source 2, p. 12).

2. When launching new products on the market, an enterprise can use a pricing strategy:

1) "market penetration"

2) "cream skimming"

3) "following the leader".

Answer: 1) "market penetration", 2) "skimming"

(Source http://market-pages.ru/osnmark/31.html).

3. Ask price is…

1) the minimum price that buyers are willing to pay for a given product

2) the maximum price that buyers are willing to pay for a given product

3) the price at which the transaction is made

4) there is no correct answer.

Answer: 2) the maximum price that buyers are willing to pay for a given product (Source http://www.vedomosti.ru/glossary/price%20 of demand).

4. Monopolistic competition is understood as such a market structure in which:

1) a group of complementary goods is produced by a large number of independent producers

2) all goods are produced in a competitive environment

3) a group of interchangeable goods is produced by a large number of independent producers.

Answer: 3) a group of interchangeable goods is produced by a large number of producers independent of each other (East. 2, p. 114).

5. The essence of the method of determining the price based on reduced costs is:

1) costing only for direct costs, indirect costs are written off to financial results

2) costing based on the relationship of costs, production volumes and profits

3) determination of standard costs for all cost elements.

Answer: 1) costing only for direct costs, indirect costs are written off to financial results (Ist.2, p.131).

6. The lowest possible price is typical for the stage of the product life cycle:

1) market launch

3) maturity

4) decline.

Answer: 1) Introduction to the market

(Source http://fmi.asf.ru/library/book/Panova/G3_3.html).

7. Administrative intervention of the state in the establishment of certain pricing rules is:

1) indirect regulation

2) direct price regulation

3) market self-regulation

4) there is no correct answer.

Answer: 2) direct regulation of prices (Source 2, p. 181).

8. The price of goods on the state of effective demand and the volume of savings of the population ...

2) does not affect.

Answer: 1) influences (Source 3, p.12)

9. The following features of price growth are not associated with the inflationary process:

1) prices rise for almost all goods

2) prices rise for a long time

3) prices rise due to the improvement in the quality of goods

4) price increases are constant.

Answer: 2) prices rise for a long time, 3) prices rise due to the improvement in the quality of goods (Est. http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflation).

10. In a market economy, the solution of three fundamental tasks of society: what? as? for whom? - defines:

1) the total cost of production

2) price system

3) demand and supply of goods in the market.

Answer: 3) demand and supply of goods on the market (Source 2, p.11)