An integrated approach to assessing the results of education. An integrated approach to assessing the value of an organization An integrated approach to assessing

The modern system of internal control of the company, which has an internal audit service, is one of the indispensable management tools in the organization of corporate governance and control. The effective work of the internal audit and control service (IAS) allows managers to make the right decisions aimed at complying with the requirements of the law and internal regulations of the company, the safety of assets, ensuring the reliability of all types of reporting, preventing, promptly identifying and minimizing internal and external risks; ensuring the efficiency of financial and economic activities and improving the management of the company.
Unfortunately, at present there is no specific methodology for conducting internal audits of the effectiveness of the company's internal control service, aimed at its objective assessment and development of proposals for its optimization. However, experts believe that the effectiveness of internal audit can be assessed from two positions:
internal, i.e., from the point of view of the company's management, heads of branches and other divisions, financial managers;
external, i.e. from the point of view of partners, suppliers, buyers and other interested parties.
Most executives and specialists of companies with internal audit services agree that internal audit can be considered effective if, on the one hand, reports on the results of internal audit reviews provide valuable information to top management, and on the other hand, the resources used in implementation of internal audit are minimal. Therefore, in order to evaluate the effectiveness, each company must monitor the implementation of the developed internal audit programs, the results of audits, feedback from auditors and the activities of departments.
An external evaluation of the effectiveness of internal audit is usually carried out as a result of third-party audits: audit organizations, tax authorities, etc. Identification of violations, errors, facts of misstatement of reporting or fraud by external auditors in the presence of an internal audit and control service in the company indicates ineffective the effective work of internal auditors and the weakness of the company's internal control system.
Since the company's management is interested in the effective work of the IAS, it should initiate the development of a system for assessing the quality of the work of this service, aimed at ensuring the efficiency of the financial and economic activities of the company and its separate divisions, as well as their development. To do this, it is required to determine the range of assessment indicators: forecast and actual. Practice shows that the use of only quantitative indicators (such as the number of checks, the time for their implementation, the amount of detected theft and illegal payments, etc.) is insufficient today. Therefore, in order to objectively assess the effectiveness of the IAS work, it is necessary to apply an integrated approach, i.e., use an assessment system that includes both quantitative and qualitative indicators.
At present, there is no standard solution for creating a system of indicators of quality, efficiency, and the useful result of the work of the IAS. However, one can focus on those factors that can serve as the basis for the development of such an assessment system. These include:
direct quantitative effect from the activities of the IAS, i.e. the number of violations detected, the amount of violations detected, the amounts recovered from the perpetrators, etc.;
indirect quantitative effect of IAS activities, which consists in reducing the cost of external audit and consulting services;
the effect of the preventive measures recommended by the IAS staff;
the effect associated with an increase in the validity of managerial decisions based on the results of IAS control checks.
Many indicators can serve as the basis for assessing SVA. The main ones include the following:
the ratio of the costs of IAS and the real benefits from its work;
areas of activity of the IAS;
IAS status within the company;
professional level and development of IAS personnel;
SVA projects;
applied internal audit methodology;
applied internal audit technologies.
The specific list and values of indicators for assessing the performance of the IAS are usually determined by the head of the IAS, coordinating them with the top management of the company. To analyze the activities of the IAS by the top management of the company, the indicators can be enlarged, and for the heads of departments and services - detailed. So, for example, in JSC Severstal, according to the head of the internal audit department of this company A. Guryev, to evaluate managers, a “set of indicators is used, including both organizational targets (implementation of the annual audit plan, development of corrective action plans by management based on the results audits) and the goals of personal and professional development (training and obtaining professional certificates)”.
Aggregated indicators should be formed into a system so that it is possible to judge the degree of implementation of the annual work plan of auditors and the costs of audits. In addition, the scorecard should provide an assessment of the contribution of the IAS and its individual employees to the overall performance of both the company as a whole and its separate structural divisions, as well as individual business processes.
In large companies, internal audit and control systems are usually integrated into all structural divisions. Under such conditions, to assess the effectiveness of IAS, such important indicators are used as:
the ratio of the sum of the cost effect from the implementation of the IAS of all control and consulting activities in a certain period to the sum of all costs for the maintenance and development of the IAS;
the amount of additional savings from the distribution of the results of verification and consulting activities to all business units of the company; 3) the degree of deviation of the actual financial and economic performance of the company and its separate subdivisions from the planned level;
4) the amount of damage prevented as a result of the audit and analytical work of the IAS.
Detailed indicators can be used by both large and medium-sized companies. They can be divided into qualitative and quantitative indicators.
Quality metrics include:
the general level of qualification of auditors;
the average duration of their work in NEA;
the average number of hours spent on professional development of one auditor per year;
the number of IAS employees who have professional and qualification certificates of auditors;
availability and implementation of internal audit standards.
Quantitative indicators can be grouped into two groups:
performance indicators - the average number of audits carried out by one auditor; average duration of one check; implementation of the approved IAS work plan; the percentage of audits conducted on time; the number of recommendations submitted to the initiators of the audits; the number of unsatisfied inspection orders;
performance indicators - the number of auditors' comments on facts previously unknown to the head of the audited unit; the number of customer requests to IAS; degree of customer satisfaction; percentage of internal auditors' recommendations implemented; direct economic effect from the implementation of audit recommendations.

In children of primary school age, as a rule, there are no more than 3 semantic groups, in older children - 4 groups.

The triune purpose of the lesson
(in the didactics of the past) = A goal is a pre-programmed result that a person should receive in the future in the process of carrying out this or that activity.

goal-setting, goal-setting, purposefulness

l The Triune Lesson Objective (TCU) is a complex composite goal that incorporates three aspects:

cognitive, educational and developmental Informative aspect of TCU = To teach and teach each student to independently acquire knowledge. To teach others is to show them what they must do to learn what they are being taught; To fulfill the main requirements for mastering knowledge: completeness, depth, awareness, systematic, consistency, flexibility, depth, strength;To form skills - a combination of knowledge and skills that ensure the successful performance of activities. “It is advisable, when planning the educational goal of the lesson, to indicate what level of quality of knowledge, skills and abilities students are expected to achieve in this lesson: reproductive, constructive or creative"(V.F. Palamarchuk).

Developmental aspect TCU = a) Development of the sensory sphere

Development of the eye, orientation in space and time, accuracy and subtlety of distinguishing color, light and shadow, shape, sounds, shades of speech; b) Development of the motor sphere Mastering the motor skills of small muscles, the ability to control their motor actions, develop motor skills, proportionality of movement, muscle development; c) emotional sphere The manifestation of admiration, surprise, indignation, sympathy, empathy, etc. d) Speech development

Enrichment and complication of the vocabulary, complication of the semantic function of speech (new knowledge brings new aspects of understanding), strengthening of the communicative properties of speech (expressiveness, expressiveness), mastery of artistic images, expressive properties of the language, fluency in the terminology of the subject.

Development of thinking Learn to analyze Learn to compare; Learn to highlight the main thing; Learn to build analogies; Learn to generalize and synthesize; Learn to prove and disprove; Learn to define and explain concepts; Learn to pose and develop problems.

Educational aspect of TCU = Upbringing Worldview and worldview; Ability to cooperate in a team, showing humanity, camaraderie, kindness, delicacy, courtesy, discipline, responsibility, honesty; Ability to communicate, demonstrating the culture of internal moral relations; Culture of educational work;

Ability and readiness for self-improvement, the ability to formulate and defend one's own point of view; Responsible attitude to educational work, composure, diligence; Active citizenship, patriotism, law-abiding; Interest and the need to study the subject, self-education.

12) Traditional lesson and explanatory and illustrative teaching method. Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia: “A lesson as a unit of the educational process organized by a teacher is characterized by a number of indispensable features (requirements) that do not depend either on the characteristics of the teacher, or on the peculiarity of the composition of the students, the provision of the school with equipment, etc.”, which include: Unity teaching and educational function; Stimulating the cognitive activity of students; Security development of cognitive independence; The lesson is an organic whole with a single didactic goal, which is subject to all its elements without exception; Each part of the lesson and the lesson as a whole must be built with taking into account the patterns of assimilation

Philosophical basis: humanism, anthroposophy, pedocentrism, pragmatism

Sources of human mental development: biogenic, sociogenic, psychogenic, idealistic

Concepts of the process of assimilation of social knowledge by an individual: interiorization, behavioral, associative-reflex, suggestive, neurolinguistic programming

Orientation to personal structures:

in information technology the formation of school knowledge, skills and abilities is carried out (ZUN);

operating rooms their main task is to provide the formation of ways of mental actions (COURT);

self-development technologies aimed at the formation of self-governing mechanisms of personality (SUM);

heuristic- to develop creative abilities;

applied- the formation of an effective-practical sphere of personality (DPS)

By the nature of the content and structure: educational, educational, general education, professional, humanistic, technocratic, mono- and poly-technologies, penetrating

By organizational form: Classroom, alternative, academic, club, individual, group, collective ways of learning, differentiated learning

Technologies are mass, compensatory, victimological advanced education for working with difficult or gifted children

by type of cognitive activity management: traditional (classical lecture, using TSO, learning from a book), differentiated (small group system, "tutor" system), programmed (computer, software, "consultant" system)

Teacher-student interaction can be:open(uncontrolled and uncorrected activity of students); cyclical(with control, self-control and mutual control); scattered(front); directed(individual)

15) Student-centered pedagogy and student-centered learning technologies: multi-level learning, collective mutual learning and cooperation technologies;

Technologies of student-centered learning; multi-level learning; collective mutual learning; cooperation.

Multi-level technology learning differences the bulk of students by level of learning comes down first of all to time necessary for the student to master the educational material;

incapacitated, who are not able to achieve a predetermined level of knowledge and skills, even with a large expenditure of study time; talented (about 5%), who are often able to do what everyone else cannot cope with; students who make up the majority (about 90%), whose ability to acquire knowledge and skills depends on the cost of study time

School with level differentiation Completion of classes of homogeneous composition from the initial stage of schooling based on the diagnosis of the dynamic characteristics of the individual and the level of mastery of general educational skills; Intra-class differentiation in the middle link, carried out by selecting groups for separate education at different levels (basic and variable). If there is sustained interest, the group becomes a class with an in-depth study of individual subjects;

Exercise "Complex Associations"

The subjects are presented with a form with a set of 20 pairs of words. Each couple is in a certain relationship. There are also six pairs of words in the cipher, marked with letters. It is necessary to determine which pair of words from the cipher corresponds in similarity to a pair of words in the set. The answers are recorded by the subjects on a piece of paper as follows: the number of a pair of words from the set is written and through the dash the answer is written with a letter

Computer games

20) Innovative methods of teaching students: distance learning technologies and electronic interactive learning at the university.

There are several learning models: passive - the student acts as an "object" of learning (listens and looks); active - the student acts as the "subject" of learning (independent work, creative tasks);

interactive - interaction.

Principles of interactive learning: individualization; flexibility; electivity; contextual approach; development of cooperation; use of active learning methods.

Assimilation of the material. When delivering lecture material -

no more than 20-30% of information, When working independently with literature - up to 50%, When pronouncing - up to 70%, With personal participation in the activity being studied (for example, in a business game) - up to 90%.

Distance learning technology. Distance learning is a learning technology based on the use of information and telecommunication technologies and technical means,

which create conditions for the student to choose academic disciplines, dialogue exchange with the teacher, while the learning process does not depend on the location of the student in space and time.

Remote education- a system in which the process of distance learning is implemented to achieve and confirm by the student a certain educational qualification, which becomes the basis of his further activities.

Information and educational environment of distance learning– a systematically organized set of data transmission means, information resources, interaction protocols, hardware, software and organizational and methodological support, focused on meeting the educational needs of users.

Advantages of distance learning. Flexibility Modularity Parallelism Cost-effectiveness Coverage Adaptability Social equity Internationality The new role of the teacher

Disadvantages of distance learning. Lack of live contact between the teacher and the student; Lack of live communication between students; High labor costs at the first stage of creating training courses for distance learning; Students must have required access to technical training aids (at a minimum - a computer, modem, e-mail and Internet access); May create a significant load on the network; The impossibility of 100% control over students' knowledge.

Electronic interactive learning. an educational technology that uses network technologies (the Internet and corporate networks) to communicate formal and informal instruction, support, and evaluation.Means and methods of electronic interactive learning. interactive resources and materials, digital libraries and ELS, training materials and courses, real-time discussions, chats, video chats, e-mail, video conferences, video consultations and software sharing applications (shared workspaces). e-learning tools. Web conferences Online seminar Webinar.

Advantages of electronic interactive forms of education. Students learn new material not as passive listeners, but as active participants in the learning process. The share of the classroom load is reduced and the amount of independent work is increased; Students acquire the skill of mastering modern technical means and information processing technologies; The ability to independently find information and determine the level of its reliability is developed; relevance and efficiency received information; students are involved in solving global, not regional problems - their horizons are expanding; Flexibility and accessibility. Students can connect to educational resources and programs from any computer on the network; The use of such forms as a calendar, electronic tests (intermediate and final) allows for a more accurate administration of the educational process; etc. Interactive technologies provide an opportunity for constant, rather than episodic (scheduled) contacts between students and a teacher. They make education more personal.

21) The method of studying situations (case study). This is teaching method when students and teachers (instructors) participate in face-to-face discussions on issues or cases (cases) business. The case method involves: a written example of a situation from business practice; independent study and discussion of the situation by students; joint discussion of the situation in the classroom under the guidance of a teacher; adherence to the principle "the process of discussion is more important than the decision itself". Principles of formation of a specific situation.First of all, the learning situation is specially prepared (written, edited, constructed) for the purposes of learning. Secondly, the learning situation must correspond to a certain conceptual field of the course or program in which it is considered. Thirdly, work with them should teach students to analyze specific information, trace cause-and-effect relationships, highlight key problems and (or) trends in business processes. Thus, ideal specific situation- this is: an entertaining story of a particular business or an incident from the history of this business; a puzzle to be solved; an abundance of information, the analysis of which is not trivial and requires the search for additional information; an actual problem that can give a continuation of the situation in the future; more or less typical situation, coinciding in the main thing - the "theory" of the issue. A set of materials for working with a training specific situation includes: the situation itself (text with questions for discussion); applications with a selection of various information that conveys the general context of the situation (copy of financial documents, publications, photos, etc.); conclusion on the situation (possible solution to the problem, subsequent events); a note for the teacher outlining the author's approach to the analysis of the situation. The written representation of any situation should include: title page with a short, memorable title of the situation (the author and year of writing are indicated in the note); introduction where the hero (heroes) of the situation is mentioned, the history of the company is told, the time of the beginning of the action is indicated; main part, which contains the main array of information, internal intrigue, problem; conclusion, where the situation can "hang" at that stage of its development, which requires an appropriate solution to the problem. Sources of specific situations . First option - the story is taken as a basis, and most often a fragment of the life of a real company, information about which was obtained by the author of the situation directly in the course of a research or consulting project, or a targeted collection of information. Second option - the use of secondary sources, primarily information "scattered" in the media, specialized magazines and publications, information bulletins and booklets distributed at exhibitions, presentations, etc. The third, the least common, option is a description of a fictional situation.

Problem learning. a system of teaching methods and tools, the basis of which is the modeling of a real creative process by creating a problem situation and managing the search for a solution to the problem. Stages of problem learning: informational, not requiring the creative activity of the individual, training, including repetition of the action and control over the success of the implementation. Forms of problem-based learning:problem statement- the teacher himself poses the problem and solves it; cooperative learning - the teacher poses a problem, and the solution is achieved together with the students; creative learning- students both formulate a problem and find its solution. Stages of human cognitive activity in a problem situation: problem situation - problem - search for solutions - problem solving. General functions of problem-based learning: students' assimilation of a system of knowledge and methods of mental practical activity; development of cognitive independence and creative abilities of students; formation of dialectical-materialistic thinking of students (as a basis). Special Features of Problem Learning: education of skills of creative assimilation of knowledge (application of certain logical techniques and methods of creative activity); education of skills of creative application of knowledge (application of acquired knowledge in a new situation) and the ability to solve educational problems; formation and accumulation of experience in creative activity (mastering the methods of scientific research, solving practical problems and artistic representation of reality). Types of problem situations common to all subjects:First: students do not know how to solve the problem, they cannot answer a problematic question, give an explanation for a new fact in an educational or life situation. Second: the collision of students with the need to use previously acquired knowledge in new practical conditions. The third: there is a contradiction between the theoretically possible way of solving the problem and the practical impracticability of the chosen method. Fourth: there are contradictions between the practically achieved result of completing the educational task and the students' lack of knowledge for theoretical justification.

22) Method of projects. The purpose of the method is the development of self-educational activity among students. A project is defined as an organized purposeful activity. The result of the project activity of students under the guidance of a teacher is new knowledge . Reasons for using the project method: the need not to transfer knowledge to students, but to teach them to acquire this knowledge on their own, to be able to use the acquired knowledge to solve new cognitive and practical problems; the relevance of acquiring communication skills and abilities; the relevance of broad human contacts, acquaintance with different cultures, points of view on one problem; the ability to use research methods: collect information, facts, be able to analyze them from different points of view, put forward hypotheses, draw conclusions and conclusions. Requirements for using the project method: The presence of a problem/task that is significant in terms of research, requiring integrated knowledge, research search for its solution; Practical, theoretical, cognitive significance of the expected results; Independent (individual, pair, group) activity of students. Structuring the content of the project (indicating the phased results). The use of research methods that provide for a certain sequence of actions: Stages of designing educational activities based on the method of projects definition of the problem and the research tasks arising from it (using the method of "brainstorming", "round table" in the course of joint research); putting forward a hypothesis for their solution; discussion of ways to design the final results (presentations, protection, creative reports, views, etc.); collection, systematization and analysis of the obtained data; Summing up, registration of results, their presentation; conclusions, promotion of new research problems. Scope of the project method collection of data in different countries, regions, cities; comparison of observations of natural and social phenomena; comparative study of events, facts to identify a certain trend, develop proposals and make decisions; joint cognitive activity. Requirements for the teacher when implementing the project method: Readiness for independent development of methods for managing the search and research work of students. Possession of the method of "brainstorming", holding a "round table", statistical methods. Active cooperation of teachers teaching various subjects.

Programmed education. The goal is to increase the efficiency of managing the learning process based on the cybernetic approach. Training implies the work of the listener according to a certain program, in the course of which, he acquires knowledge.

The role of the teacher is to monitor the psychological state of the student and the effectiveness of the stage-by-stage mastering of the educational material, and, if necessary, the regulation of program actions. In accordance with this, algorithms for programmed learning were developed: rectilinear, branched, mixed, and others, which can be implemented using computers, programmed textbooks, teaching materials, etc.

Programmed Learning Principlessmall steps- educational material is divided into small parts (steps) to make it easier for students to master it, immediate confirmation of the correctness of the answer- after answering the question, the student can check the correctness of the answer and only if his answer completely matches the correct one, he can proceed to the next step. individualization of the pace of learning- the student works at his own pace, gradual increase in difficulty- a significant number of leading instructions at the first steps gradually decreases, thereby increasing the degree of difficulty of tasks, differentiated consolidation of knowledge- each generalization is repeated several times in different contexts and illustrated with carefully selected examples, uniform course of instrumental teaching- the principle of programs with a linear structure.

Research method of teaching. organization of search, cognitive activity of students by setting cognitive and practical tasks by the teacher that require an independent creative solution.Functions of the research method of teaching: organizes the creative search and application of knowledge, ensures the mastery of the methods of scientific knowledge in the process of searching for them, is a condition for the formation of interest, the need for creative activity, for self-education. The essence of the research method of teaching- the teacher formulates the problem to the students, and they independently look for its solution. In this case, it is supposed to apply the research method not in a separate lesson, but in the whole discipline (possibly optional).

The main components of the method: identification of problems - development and formulation of hypotheses - observations, experiments, experiments - judgments and conclusions made on their basis.

Organization of the integrated application of the research method of teaching . Choice of an interdisciplinary topic: Must allow students to go through the stages of scientific research, be sufficiently voluminous. Selection of a group of students actively participating in the study of an interdisciplinary topic: The group attends classes without fail, (other students are invited to wish) The direct supervision of the student's research is carried out by the teacher - "intermediary" he "is" between the student and the process of obtaining new knowledge.

23)Modular training programs and principles of their construction. Principles of modular education and their relationship with general didactic principles

Principles of modular training. the principle of modularity; separation of separate elements from the content; dynamism; effectiveness and efficiency of knowledge and its system; flexibility; conscious perspective; versatility of methodological consulting; parity (according to P.A. Yutsyavichenya)

mp structure

An integrated approach to assessing the problem of learning failure.

Detailed classification of the causes of failure (P.P. Borisov, 1980)Pedagogical reasons: shortcomings in teaching certain subjects, gaps in knowledge for previous years, incorrect transfer to the next class; Social causes; unfavorable living conditions, unworthy behavior of parents, material security of the family, lack of daily routine, neglect; Physiological causes: diseases, general weakness of health, dysfunction of the central nervous system; Psychological reasons: features of the development of attention, memory, slowness, insufficient level of speech development, lack of formation of cognitive interests, narrowness of outlook.

The theory of underachievement at the present time. MM. Bezrukikh: the problem of academic failure requires an integrated approach of specialists and is both pedagogical, medical, and psychological and social. To identify the causes, a comprehensive examination is required. Experts believe that in different age periods the leading causes of academic failure may differ: the beginning of schooling, the period of puberty - psychophysiological reasons prevail, in other periods - social reasons.

Diagnosis of the causes of school failure. Stages of work to determine the causes of learning difficulties: Collection of preliminary data about the student, their analysis; Diagnostics using methods; Comparison of the results of the first and second stages; Selection of the necessary pedagogical influence; Correct construction of work with the student.

Comprehensive examination of the student. Medical (somatoneurological) examination;Psychological diagnostics;Pedagogical examination (including defectological examination);Speech therapy examination.

Universal psychodiagnostic methods: D. Veksler's intelligence test; R. Cattell's multifactorial personality questionnaire; Raven test of mental performance; School Test of Mental Development (SIT); Drawing association test by S. Rosenzweig; Luscher's color test, Phillips' test for determining the level of school anxiety, G. Moreno's sociometric test, a number of projective tests.

5) Pedagogical systems for teaching younger students =

Developmental learning according to V.V. Davydov; according to L.V. Zankov;

Traditional initial school: "Primary School of the 21st Century", "School 2100", "School of Russia", "Harmony", "Perspective Primary School", "Classical Primary School", "Planet of Knowledge", "Perspective" All existing programs are approved and recommended by the Ministry education, tested in practice. The learning outcomes for any of the programs are focused on a single educational standard.

Features of developmental education according to L.V. Zankov L.V. Zankova relies on the independence of the student, his creative comprehension of the material. The teacher does not give the schoolchildren the truth, but makes them "dig" for themselves. The scheme is the opposite of the traditional one. First, examples are given, and students themselves must draw theoretical conclusions. The acquired material is fixed by practical tasks. The new didactic principles of this system are the rapid mastering of the material, a high level of difficulty, the leading role of theoretical knowledge, the passage of educational material "in a spiral". For example, already in the first year of study, schoolchildren are introduced to the concept of "Parts of Speech", and they must come to an understanding of these concepts on their own. The task of education is to give a general picture of the world on the basis of science, literature, and art. The program is aimed at the comprehensive development of the child, it teaches children to extract information themselves, and not to receive ready-made information.

Features of developmental education in
D.B. Elkonin-V.V. Davydov

The student must learn to look for missing information when faced with a new task, to test their own hypotheses.

The system assumes that the younger student will independently organize interaction with the teacher and other students, analyze and critically evaluate their own actions and partners' points of view.

This system is suitable for those who want to develop in a child not so much the ability to analyze, but the ability to think unusually, deeply.

In the system of D.B. Elkonina - V.V. Davydov emphasizes not on the result - the acquired knowledge, but on the ways to comprehend them. The student may not remember something, but he must know where and how, if necessary, to fill this gap.

The class studies the principles of building a language, the origin and structure of numbers, etc.

Knowledge of the rules, based on an understanding of their causes, is better remembered.

General educational skills and abilities - ArbitrarinessOrganizationAttentionObservation

Particular attention should be paid to the development of logical memory and voluntary attention. If they add up spontaneously, they lead to significant distortions and learning disorders. (When moving from elementary school to secondary school, tests are conducted to diagnose the development of general educational skills, to check the logic of conclusions and attention features, see the "Grouping" test - the ability to semantic processing of memorized material)

The problem of adaptation to learning in secondary school = Adaptation to school at this age is a complex theoretical and practical problem that does not have a clear answer;

Teachers and parents at the same time “mature” fifth-graders (should be independent and organized) and emphasize their “childishness”.

The consequence is duality, inconsistency of relationships and a system of requirements that are assimilated by schoolchildren, they learn to manipulate adults with the help of this duality.

Areas of work with teachers during the adaptation period
(beginning of the school year in the 5th grade) = 1. Discussion of the individual characteristics of schoolchildren (increased slowness or impulsiveness, timidity, excessive sensitivity to comments); Note: teachers have fairly general assessment characteristics that do not take into account the individuality of the student; 2. Pedagogical consultations for each 5th grade. Prepared jointly by teachers of secondary and primary schools and psychologists of secondary and primary schools. The main task is to harmonize the requirements of different teachers for students, the continuity of the requirements of primary and secondary schools.

Different emotional attitude to the lesson of students of the 5th and 7th grades For students of the 5th grade it is important: How the teacher tells the material, how often he jokes, in what form he praises or scolds the students;

For students of the 7th grade it is important: The attitude of the teacher to the answers of the students, the opportunity to show initiative and independence, to discuss in the lesson.

Formation of the ability to study in secondary school \u003d Skills and skills that have developed in primary school often do not correspond to the material and requirements of secondary school;

It is advisable to conduct special classes:How to listen to a teacher; How to do homework; What to mark for; How to check your work; How to learn from your own mistakes; How to prepare for a test; Why sometimes you don’t want to study and what to do about it; and what you don’t know; How to remember better; What is laziness; How to do written homework; How to learn to think better, etc.

6) Method "Group" - For memorization, a series of 20 words grouped in meaning (a total of 5 groups, 4 words each) is presented. Memorization is carried out according to the method of incomplete memorization (the material is presented and reproduced three times). Instructions are given before each play.

Rules for the methodology:

Words are read with a pause of 1 s between the pronunciation of the elements of the row.

At the end of the reading of the entire row, its playback begins. Reproduction is free, since the subject must catch that words can be combined into groups.

All the words reproduced by the child are recorded in the order they are called. Then it is proposed to listen again to the whole series of words.

The original row of words is read again. Then the subject reproduces it in a free order. The words reproduced by him are recorded. Then comes the third reading of the series and the third reproduction.

The sequence of the presented words: SunPoplarCupHareMoonHatBearPineSpoonSkirtLinden SaucerStarFoxDressSkyChristmas treeSquirrelMugJacketInstruction for the first playback: “Now I will read a series of words. You listen carefully, and then repeat in the order convenient for you. Attention!" Instructions for the second play: “Now I will read all the words again. You listen, and then say all the words that you remember. Name the words that you spoke for the first time, and again memorized. All clear? Attention!" Instructions for third play: “Now I will read all the words again. You listen, and then say all the words that you remember. Name the words that you said the first and second time, and again memorized. All clear? Attention!"

Processing and analysis of the results = The reproduced words are recorded in the order they are called by the child; the association of words into groups related to categories is determined: "animals", "trees", "clothes", "dishes", "firmament".

The normal course of mnemonic activity with the ability to semantic processing of the material looks like this: at the first reproduction of the presented words, the volume of short-term memory is 1-4 words for children 6-7 years old (on average 3 words). Grouped words, with rare exceptions, are not observed.

At the second playback, the total volume of the reproduced words increases by 2-4 words; 1-2 partially formed groups appear, usually consisting of 2 words.

At the third playback, 3-4 groups of 2-3 words appear, one or two groups of all 4 words may appear.

The federal state educational standard contains requirements for the system for assessing the achievement of planned results, according to which the assessment system:

1. Fixes the goals of valuation activities

2. Fixes the criteria, procedures, assessment tools and forms of presentation of its results.

3. Fixes the conditions and boundaries of the appraisal system.

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An integrated approach to assessing results in accordance with the Federal State Educational Standard

Kovaleva S.S. - elementary teacher

Classes secondary school №6

Performance at MMO 26.02.2014

The federal state educational standard contains requirements for the system for assessing the achievement of planned results, according to which the assessment system:

1. Fixes the goals of valuation activities:

a) focuses on achieving results:

spiritual and moral development and education (personal results);
formation of universal learning activities (meta-subject results);
mastering the content of educational subjects (subject results);

b) provides an integrated approach to assessing all of the above resultseducation (subject, meta-subject, personal);

c) provides the ability to regulate the education system based on the information received on the achievement of the planned results (to be able to take pedagogical measures to improve and improve the education processes in each class and in the school as a whole).

2. Fixes the criteria, procedures, assessment tools and forms of presentation of its results.

3. Fixes the conditions and boundaries of the appraisal system.

In accordance with the Standards, the results assessment system involves the assessment of different areas of student activity. In this regard, priority in the diagnosis areproductive tasks(tasks) for the application of knowledge and skills, involving the creation by the student in the course of solving his information product: inference, evaluation, etc. Verification of cognitive, regulatory, communicative actions is carried outmeta-subject diagnostic work,composed of competence tasks. The advantage of diagnosing meta-subject results is its pedagogical orientation.

The standards provide fordiagnosing the results of personal development, which involves the manifestation by the student of the qualities of his personality: assessment of actions, designation of his life position, cultural choice, motives, personal goals. In accordance with the confidentiality rules, such diagnostics are carried out non-personally (the work performed by students is not signed, the tables that reflect this data reflect generalized results for the class or school as a whole, but not for each individual student).

Forms of results control:

purposeful observation of the teacher (fixation of the actions and qualities shown by the student according to the given parameters);
self-assessment of the student according to the accepted forms;
results of educational projects;
the results of extracurricular and extracurricular activities, the achievements of students.

The means of accumulating information about the educational results of the student isportfolio of achievements.The final grade for the primary school (the decision to transfer to the next level of education) is made on the basis of all the results (subject, meta-subject, personal; educational and extracurricular) accumulated in the student's portfolio of achievements for four years of study in primary school.

^ Comprehensive assessment of all educational results of the student

is a general characteristic of personal, meta-subject and subject results, which are summarized intables of educational results(Appendix). Each of the tables has instructions for maintaining: when, how and on the basis of what it is filled in, how the results are interpreted and used. The grades and marks placed in the tables are the basis for making decisions on pedagogical assistance and support for each student in what he needs at this stage of development.

^ Limits of application of the assessment system:

1) Gradual implementation of the assessment system by stages, from simple to complex: “minimum of the first stage”, “minimum of the second stage” (mandatory part) and “maximum” (part implemented at the request and capabilities of the teacher).

2) The system for evaluating results is being developed and supplemented in the course of its implementation.

3) Reducing to a minimum the number of "reporting documents" and the terms for their mandatory completion by the teacher, for which the following funds are used:

Teaching students how to evaluate and fix their results under the control of a teacher;

The introduction of new report forms simultaneously with the computerization of this process, with the transfer of most of the reports to a digital, automated basis.

4) Focus on maintaining student success and motivation.

5) Ensuring the personal psychological safety of the student: the educational results of a particular student are compared only with his own previous indicators, but not with the indicators of other students in the class. Each student has the right to an individual educational trajectory - at his own pace of mastering the material, at the chosen level of claims.

The technology of evaluation of educational achievements of students is used.

Target technology for evaluating educational achievements is to ensure at the stage of control the principles of a developing student-oriented education system.

Tasks

Determine how the student acquires the skills to use knowledge - that is, the modern goals of education.
To develop the student's ability to independently evaluate the result of his actions, control himself, find and correct his own mistakes.
Orient the student to success, relieve him of the fear of school control and assessment, create a comfortable learning environment, and preserve the psychological health of children.
The organization of control in the lesson in accordance with the technology for evaluating educational achievements involves the implementation of seven rules that determine the procedure for actions in different situations of control and evaluation.The system for assessing the achievement of planned results includes two mutually agreed upon assessment systems:

external evaluation carried out by services external to the school;
internal evaluationcarried out by the school itself - students, teachers, administration.

The main object of the system for assessing the results of education is the planned results of mastering by students of the basic educational program of primary general education.
The system for assessing the achievement of the planned results of mastering the basic educational program of primary general education involvesA complex approachto the evaluation of resultseducation, which allows to assess the achievement by students of all three groups of educational outcomes:personal, meta-subject and subject.

^ Personal learning outcomesreflect the system of value orientations of the younger student, his attitude to the world around him, personal qualities.They are not subject to a final assessment in the form of a mark and are not a criterion for transferring a student to a basic school.. The teacher creates conditions for the formation of personal universal educational activities, presented in the Federal State Educational Standard of the IEO, evaluates the changes taking place in different areas of the student's personality: educational and cognitive motives; relationships with peers; civic identity (attributing oneself to the family, people, nationality, faith); the level of reflective qualities (respect for another opinion, personal responsibility, self-esteem), etc.

The teacher fixes the personal results of the student in two documents: the characteristics of the student and his portfolio. The characteristic that is given to a graduate of an elementary school reflects his distinctive individual characteristics, not only related to the development of academic subjects (progress), but also revealing his character traits, personal qualities. The characteristic includes the following items:

assessment of the student's progress, his achievements in the study of academic subjects, possible difficulties in mastering a separate program material;
the level of formation of educational and cognitive motivation, attitudes towards educational activities; academic independence and initiative (high, medium/sufficient, low);
relationships with classmates, the level of formation of leadership qualities, participation in joint activities, the presence of friends in the class; attitude towards the student of other children.

^ Assessment of personal resultsis an assessment of the achievement by students of the planned results in their personal development.

The object of evaluation of personal resultsis the formation of UUD, included in three blocks:

self-determination- the formation of the internal position of the student - the adoption and development of a new social role of the student; the formation of the foundations of the Russian civil identity of the individual as a sense of pride in their homeland, people, history and awareness of their ethnicity; development of self-esteem and the ability to adequately assess oneself and one's achievements, to see the strengths and weaknesses of one's personality;
sense formation - search and establishment of personal meaning (i.e., “meaning for oneself”) of teaching by students on the basis of a stable system of educational, cognitive and social motives; understanding the boundaries of "what I know" and "what I don't know" of "ignorance" and striving to bridge this gap;
moral and ethical orientation- knowledge of the basic moral norms and orientation towards their implementation based on the understanding of their social necessity; the ability to moral decentration - taking into account the positions, motives and interests of the participants in the moral dilemma in resolving the moral dilemma; development of ethical feelings - shame, guilt, conscience, as regulators of moral behavior.

^ The content of the assessment of personal resultsat the level of primary general education is built around the assessment of:

the formation of the internal position of the student, which is reflected in the emotionally positive attitude of the student to the educational institution, orientation to the meaningful moments of the educational process - lessons, learning new things, mastering skills and new competencies, the nature of educational cooperation with the teacher and classmates - and orientation to the behavior pattern of a "good student" as an example to follow;
formation of the foundations of civic identity- feelings of pride in their homeland, knowledge of significant historical events for the Fatherland; love for one's land, awareness of one's nationality, respect for the culture and traditions of the peoples of Russia and the world; developing trust and the ability to understand and empathize with the feelings of others;
formation of self-esteem,including awareness of one's abilities in learning, the ability to adequately judge the reasons for one's success/failure in learning; the ability to see your strengths and weaknesses, respect yourself and believe in success;
the formation of motivation for educational activities,including social, educational, cognitive and external motives, curiosity and interest in new content and methods of solving problems, acquiring new knowledge and skills, motivation to achieve results, striving to improve one's abilities;
knowledge of moral norms and the formation of moral and ethical judgments,ability to solve moral problems on the basis of decentration (coordination of different points of view on solving a moral dilemma); the ability to evaluate one's own actions and the actions of other people in terms of observance/violation of a moral norm.

Personal results of primary school graduatesin full compliance with the requirements of standardsnot subject to final evaluation.

The object of evaluation of meta-subject results -formation of regulatory, communicative, cognitive universal actions:

the ability of the student to accept and maintain the learning goal and objectives;to independently transform a practical task into a cognitive one, the ability to plan one's own activity in accordance with the task and the conditions for its implementation and to look for means of its implementation; the ability to control and evaluate one's actions, to make adjustments to their implementation based on the assessment and taking into account the nature of errors, to show initiative and independence in learning;
ability to carry out information search, collection and selection of essential informationfrom various information sources;
ability to use symbolic meansto create models of the studied objects and processes, schemes for solving educational, cognitive and practical problems;
ability to perform logical operationscomparison, analysis, generalization, classification according to generic characteristics, to the establishment of analogies, attribution to known concepts;
Ability to collaborate with teachers and peerswhen solving educational problems, take responsibility for the results of their actions.

Main the content of the assessment of meta-subject resultsat the level of primary general education is built around the ability to learn.

^ - assessment of students' achievement of the planned results in individual subjects:

system of fundamental elements of scientific knowledge- subject knowledge:

basic knowledge (fundamental elements of scientific knowledge - the conceptual apparatus (or "language") of educational subjects: key theories, ideas, concepts, facts, methods. This group includes a system of such knowledge, skills, educational activities that can be achieved by the vast majority of children.
knowledge supplementing, expanding or deepening the basic knowledge system

actions with subject matter(or subject actions) :

substantive actionson the basis of cognitive UUD (use of sign-symbolic means; modeling; comparison, grouping and classification of objects; actions of analysis, synthesis and generalization, establishing connections, analogies; search, transformation, presentation and interpretation of information, reasoning), these actions are performed on different subjects with different objects and have a specific "subject" coloring.
concrete substantive actions(methods of motor activity mastered in the course of physical culture, or methods of processing materials, methods of modeling, drawing, methods of musical performance, etc.).

^ Evaluation of subject resultsis an assessment of the students' achievement of the planned results in individual subjects.

Evaluation of the achievement of these substantive results is carried out both during the current and intermediate assessment, and during the implementation of the final verification work.

^ Portfolio of achievements as a tool for assessing the dynamics of individual

educational achievement

The results of the accumulated assessment obtained during the current and intermediate assessment are recorded in the form of a portfolio of achievements and are taken into account when determining the final assessment.

^ Achievement portfoliois a collection of works and results that show the student’s efforts, progress and achievements in various areas (study, creativity, communication, health, useful work for people, etc.), as well as self-analysis by the student of his current achievements and shortcomings, allowing him to determine goals for their further development.

^ The final grade of the graduate and its use in the transition from the initial

to basic general education

For the final assessment at the level of primary general education, the results of which are used when deciding on the possibility (or impossibility) of continuing education at the next level, are submittedonly subject and meta-subject resultsdescribed in the "Graduate Learn" section of the planned primary education outcomes.

The subject of the final assessment isthe ability of students to solve educational-cognitive and educational-practical tasks built on the material of the basic knowledge system using tools relevant to the content of educational subjects, including on the basis of metasubject actions. The ability to solve a different class of problems is the subject of various kinds of non-personalized (anonymous) surveys.

At the stage of primary general education, of particular importance for the continuation of education is the assimilation by studentssupport system of knowledge in the Russian language and mathematicsand mastery of the following metasubject actions:

speech , among which arecomprehension reading and information processing skills;

· communicativenecessary for educational cooperation with the teacher and peers.

The final grade of the graduate is formed on the basis of the accumulated grade recorded in the portfolio of achievements for all academic subjects and grades for the performance of three (four) final works (in the Russian language, mathematics and integrated work on an interdisciplinary basis).

The accumulated score characterizes the fulfillment of the entire set of planned results, as well as the dynamics of the educational achievements of students during the period of study. Grades for the final work characterize the level of mastering by students of the basic system of knowledge in the Russian language and mathematics, as well as the level of mastery of meta-subject actions. Based on these assessments for each subject and according to the program for the formation of universal educational activities, the following conclusions are drawn about the achievement of the planned results:

The Pedagogical Council, based on the conclusions made for each student, considers the issue of successful mastering by this student of the main educational program of primary general education and transferring him to the next level of general education.

The decision to transfer a student to the next level of general education is made simultaneously with the consideration and approval of the characteristics of the student.

All conclusions and assessments included in the characteristic are confirmed by the materials of the portfolio of achievements and other objective indicators.

The system for assessing the achievement of the planned results of mastering the main educational program is based on the technology for evaluating the educational achievements of students, developed in the educational system "School 2100".

^ I. Description of the results evaluation system

1st rule. What is valued.

Results are evaluated subject, meta-subject and personal.

Student results are actions (skills) to use knowledge in the course of solving problems (personal, metasubject, subject). Individual actions, above all successful ones, are subject to evaluation (verbal description), the solution of a full-fledged task - assessment and mark .

Rating − this is a verbal description of the results of actions (“well done”, “original”, “but here it’s inaccurate, because ...”).	Mark − this is a fixation of the evaluation result in the form of a sign on a 5-point scale.

You can evaluate any action student (especially successful): a good thought in a dialogue, a one-word answer to a reproductive question, etc.	Marked onlyfor solving a productive learning problem, during which the student comprehended the purpose and conditions of the task, carried out actions to find a solution (at least one skill for using knowledge), received and presented the result.

Additionally, at the end of the lesson, it is permissible to invite the whole class to determine which hypotheses turned out to be the most accurate, interesting, and helped to find a solution to a common problem. The authors of these hypothesescollective decisionare encouraged: they are given an assessment and (or) an “excellent” mark (solving a problem of an increased level) is put on the skill by which the problem of the lesson was formulated.

^ Teacher results and their evaluation

results teacher (educational institution)- This difference between student results(personal, meta-subject and subject) at the beginning of training (input diagnostics) and at the end of training (output diagnostics). The increase in results means that the teacher ( school ) managed to create an educational environment that ensures the development of students. A negative result of the comparison means that it was not possible to create the conditions (educational environment) for the successful development of students' abilities.

To determine the increase, the input and output diagnostics of students are compared with the average all-Russian level.

^ 2nd rule. Who evaluates.

The teacher and student together determine the grade and mark.

In order to ensure adequate assessment, the student must learn to answer questions about the goals and results of his work, that is, master the self-assessment algorithm.

^ Self-assessment algorithm (questions answered by the student):

1 . What should have been done in the task (task)? What was the goal, what should have been the result?

^ 2. Were you able to get a result? Found a solution, an answer?

3. Handled completely correctly or with an error? What, in what? To answer this question, the student needs:

Get the standard of the correct solution of the problem and compare your solution with it;

Be guided by the reaction of the teacher and the class to their own decision - whether any of his steps were corrected, whether his final answer was accepted.

4. Did you cope completely on your own or with the help of (who helped, in what way)?

Other questions are added to the specified self-assessment algorithm, including about the mark that the student puts himself. So starting from 2 3rd grade, after teaching children to use the requirements table (rule 4) and introducing success levels (rule 6), the following questions are added to this algorithm.

Continuation of the self-assessment algorithm:

5. What skill did you develop while doing the task?

6. What was the level of the task (task)?

Such problems have already been solved many times, did you need only “old”, already acquired knowledge?(Required level)
Did you encounter an unusual situation in this task (either you need already acquired knowledge in a new situation, or you need new knowledge on a topic that is only now being studied)?(Advanced level)
Such problems have never been learned to solve OR do you need knowledge that you did not learn in class?(Max level)

7. Determine the level of success at which you solved the problem.

8. Based on your level of success, determine the mark that you can give yourself.

^ Assessment in 1st grade(a feature of age - the student is not yet psychologically ready for an adequate assessment of his results, including the recognition of his mistakes)

1st step (in the first lessons).We define our mood.

Children are given the opportunity to emotionally evaluate the past lesson (day). This reflection becomes the basis for an adequate assessment of their educational success. In the margins of a notebook or in a diary, children indicate their mood, reaction to the lesson (“happy”, “it was difficult”, etc.) in the form of symbols they understand (emoticons or circles with traffic light colors).

2nd step (after 2-4 weeks).We learn to compare the goal and the result.

Children are invited to evaluate the content of their written work.

Having distributed notebooks with checked works, the teacher conducts a dialogue with the students, in which the main questions are:

- What was your assignment? Who can say what needed to be done at home? (Learning the 1st step of the self-assessment algorithm.)

- Look at your work - do you agree that the task has been completed? (Collective self-assessment learning the 2nd step of the self-assessment algorithm.)

3rd step (about a month later).We establish a procedure for evaluating our work.

Items 3 (“correct or wrong?”) and 4 (“on your own or with someone's help?”) Are added to points 1 and 2 of the self-assessment algorithm already known to students. In this case, only successful solutions are evaluated. As a “reward” for solving the problem, the teacher invites the student to draw a circle in a notebook or diary and paint it in any color.

4th step. We learn to admit our mistakes.

The teacher invites the student (psychologically prepared) in the class to evaluate the performance of the task in which he has minor errors. If an error is recognized, the circle in the notebook or diary (“reward” for solving the problem) is painted over halfway.

5th step. We learn to admit our failure.

The teacher helps students in the classroom in evaluating their actions, admitting mistakes. Then one of the children is invited to evaluate themselves in a situation where he at all failed to complete the task. In a diary or in a notebook, this (with the consent of the student) is indicated by an unfilled circle.

6th step. Use the skill of self-esteem.

When all (or almost all) students have evaluated their work in the class at least once, the teacher stops pronouncing all the questions of the self-assessment algorithm and invites the students to ask themselves these questions and answer them (based on the diagram).

^ Teaching the rule "Self-assessment" to students who completed the 1st grade

1) Grading order

1st step. Students are encouraged to learn to evaluate their own work. To do this, a conversation is held on the following questions: “You are already experienced students, tell me how best: so that you yourself learn to evaluate your results or that others always do it for you?”, “How do we start evaluating our work?”, “What will we do after that?" etc.

2nd step. Based on the results, in the form of a reference signal (pictures, keywords), a self-assessment algorithm is drawn up from 4 main and 2 additional points:

1) What was it exercise ?

2) Managed to get result ?

3) Completely correct or with an error?

4) Completely self or with help? (hereinafter - except for the 1st class):

5) By what signs do we distinguish grades and grades?

6) Which one you will put yourself mark?

2) Timing to Develop Self-Esteem Skills

1st step. A lesson is selected in which only the MINIMUM of the content of the educational material will be used. Use the time allotted for all the material to develop students' self-assessment skills.

2nd step. When designing this lesson, choose a stage (checking what you have learned or learning something new) for using the self-assessment algorithm.

3rd step. Choose a simple task, after which one of the students will be asked to publicly evaluate their result according to the self-assessment algorithm (reference signal).

3) Procedure for self-assessment

1st step. Select the most prepared student for public self-assessment of the results of their work (ensuring the success of the procedure).

2nd step. After presenting the solution (oral answer, writing on the board, etc.), invite the student to evaluate the result of his work himself. To warn that at first the teacher will help in this: ask the student questions according to the self-assessment algorithm (pointing to the reference signal): “task?”, “result?”, “correctly?”, “himself?”. The student gives answers, the teacher corrects him, explains if there is an overestimation or underestimation. All other students at this moment observe how self-assessment occurs. Their attention is activated by the questions: “What step in evaluating the work have we already taken?” etc.

3rd step. In the following lessons, self-assessment according to the algorithm is carried out in turn by all students in the class (at least 1-2 episodes per lesson; at each lesson).

4th step. Gradually, instead of pronouncing the questions, the teacher suggests that the students themselves, looking at the reference signal, ask themselves these questions and answer them. In addition to dialogue, self-assessment can be carried out with a collective check of written assignments. A standard of the correct answer appears on the board, and each student evaluates his decision in his notebook.

5th step. When students start grading without looking at the cue, the teacher can remove it and use it only if someone is having trouble.

4) Time spent on self-assessment, subject to the formed skill

1st step. When all students have the ability to work according to the “Self-Assessment Algorithm”, the teacher, when planning a lesson, stops reducing its content to a minimum, including teaching material related to the maximum.

2nd step. The self-assessment algorithm collapses: after the teacher’s suggestion to evaluate his answer, the student’s phrase follows: “the goal was achieved, there were no mistakes”, or “I got the solution, but with the help of the class”, or “I completely solved the problem of the required level without errors, which corresponds to the mark “4 » good.”

An integrated approach to assessing results in accordance with the Federal State Educational Standard

Kovaleva S.S. - teacher of geography and biology MKOU "Anenkovskaya secondary school"

performance at RMS 18.08.2016

The federal state educational standard contains requirements for the system for assessing the achievement of planned results, according to which the assessment system:

1. Fixes the goals of valuation activities:

a) focuses on achieving results:

spiritual and moral development and education (personal results);

formation of universal learning activities (meta-subject results);

mastering the content of educational subjects (subject results);

b) providesan integrated approach to assessing all of the above results education (subject, meta-subject, personal);

2. Fixes the criteria, procedures, assessment tools and forms of presentation of its results.

3. Fixes the conditions and boundaries of the appraisal system.

In accordance with the Standards, the results assessment system involves the assessment of different areas of student activity. In this regard, priority in the diagnosis are productive tasks (tasks) for the application of knowledge and skills, involving the creation by the student in the course of solving his information product: inference, evaluation, etc. Verification of cognitive, regulatory, communicative actions is carried outmeta-subject diagnostic work, composed of competence tasks. The advantage of diagnosing meta-subject results is its pedagogical orientation.

The standards provide for diagnosing the results of personal development , which involves the manifestation by the student of the qualities of his personality: assessment of actions, designation of his life position, cultural choice, motives, personal goals. In accordance with the confidentiality rules, such diagnostics are carried out non-personally (the work performed by students is not signed, the tables that reflect this data reflect generalized results for the class or school as a whole, but not for each individual student).

Forms of results control:

purposeful observation of the teacher (fixation of the actions and qualities shown by the student according to the given parameters);

self-assessment of the student according to the accepted forms;

results of educational projects;

the results of extracurricular and extracurricular activities, the achievements of students.

The means of accumulating information about the educational results of the student isportfolio of achievements. The final grade for the primary school (the decision to transfer to the next level of education) is made on the basis of all the results (subject, meta-subject, personal; educational and extracurricular) accumulated in the student's portfolio of achievements for four years of study in primary school.

^ Comprehensive assessment of all educational results of the student

is a general characteristic of personal, meta-subject and subject results, which are summarized intables of educational results (Appendix). Each of the tables has instructions for maintaining: when, how and on the basis of what it is filled in, how the results are interpreted and used. The grades and marks placed in the tables are the basis for making decisions on pedagogical assistance and support for each student in what he needs at this stage of development.

^ Limits of application of the assessment system:

2) The system for evaluating results is being developed and supplemented in the course of its implementation.

3) Reducing to a minimum the number of "reporting documents" and the terms for their mandatory completion by the teacher, for which the following funds are used:

Teaching students how to evaluate and fix their results under the control of a teacher;

The introduction of new report forms simultaneously with the computerization of this process, with the transfer of most of the reports to a digital, automated basis.

4) Focus on maintaining student success and motivation.

The technology of evaluation of educational achievements of students is used.

Target technology for evaluating educational achievements is to ensure at the stage of control the principles of a developing student-oriented education system.

Tasks

Determine how the student acquires the skills to use knowledge - that is, the modern goals of education.

To develop the student's ability to independently evaluate the result of his actions, control himself, find and correct his own mistakes.

Orient the student to success, relieve him of the fear of school control and assessment, create a comfortable learning environment, and preserve the psychological health of children.

The organization of control in the lesson in accordance with the technology for evaluating educational achievements involves the implementation of seven rules that determine the procedure for actions in different situations of control and evaluation.

The system for assessing the achievement of planned results includes two mutually agreed upon assessment systems:

external evaluation carried out by services external to the school;

internal evaluation carried out by the school itself - students, teachers, administration.

The main object of the system for assessing the results of education is the planned results of mastering by students of the basic educational program of primary general education.
The system for assessing the achievement of the planned results of mastering the basic educational program of primary general education involvesA complex approach to the evaluation of results education, which allows to assess the achievement by students of all three groups of educational outcomes:personal, meta-subject and subject .

^ Personal learning outcomes reflect the system of value orientations of the younger student, his attitude to the world around him, personal qualities.They are not subject to a final assessment in the form of a mark and are not a criterion for transferring a student to a basic school. . The teacher creates conditions for the formation of personal universal educational activities, presented in the Federal State Educational Standard of the IEO, evaluates the changes taking place in different areas of the student's personality: educational and cognitive motives; relationships with peers; civic identity (attributing oneself to the family, people, nationality, faith); the level of reflective qualities (respect for another opinion, personal responsibility, self-esteem), etc.

assessment of the student's progress, his achievements in the study of academic subjects, possible difficulties in mastering a separate program material;

the level of formation of educational and cognitive motivation, attitudes towards educational activities; academic independence and initiative (high, medium/sufficient, low);

relationships with classmates, the level of formation of leadership qualities, participation in joint activities, the presence of friends in the class; attitude towards the student of other children.

^ Assessment of personal results is an assessment of the achievement by students of the planned results in their personal development.

The object of evaluation of personal results is the formation of UUD, included in three blocks:

self-determination - the formation of the internal position of the student - the adoption and development of a new social role of the student; the formation of the foundations of the Russian civil identity of the individual as a sense of pride in their homeland, people, history and awareness of their ethnicity; development of self-esteem and the ability to adequately assess oneself and one's achievements, to see the strengths and weaknesses of one's personality;

sense formation - search and establishment of personal meaning (i.e., “meaning for oneself”) of teaching by students on the basis of a stable system of educational, cognitive and social motives; understanding the boundaries of "what I know" and "what I don't know" of "ignorance" and striving to bridge this gap;

moral and ethical orientation - knowledge of the basic moral norms and orientation towards their implementation based on the understanding of their social necessity; the ability to moral decentration - taking into account the positions, motives and interests of the participants in the moral dilemma in resolving the moral dilemma; development of ethical feelings - shame, guilt, conscience, as regulators of moral behavior.

^ The content of the assessment of personal results at the level of primary general education is built around the assessment of:

the formation of the internal position of the student , which is reflected in the emotionally positive attitude of the student to the educational institution, orientation to the meaningful moments of the educational process - lessons, learning new things, mastering skills and new competencies, the nature of educational cooperation with the teacher and classmates - and orientation to the behavior pattern of a "good student" as an example to follow;

formation of the foundations of civic identity - feelings of pride in their homeland, knowledge of significant historical events for the Fatherland; love for one's land, awareness of one's nationality, respect for the culture and traditions of the peoples of Russia and the world; developing trust and the ability to understand and empathize with the feelings of others;

formation of self-esteem, including awareness of one's abilities in learning, the ability to adequately judge the reasons for one's success/failure in learning; the ability to see your strengths and weaknesses, respect yourself and believe in success;

the formation of motivation for educational activities, including social, educational, cognitive and external motives, curiosity and interest in new content and methods of solving problems, acquiring new knowledge and skills, motivation to achieve results, striving to improve one's abilities;

knowledge of moral norms and the formation of moral and ethical judgments, ability to solve moral problems on the basis of decentration (coordination of different points of view on solving a moral dilemma); the ability to evaluate one's own actions and the actions of other people in terms of observance/violation of a moral norm.

Personal results of primary school graduates in full compliance with the requirements of standardsnot subject to final evaluation .

The object of evaluation of meta-subject results - formation of regulatory, communicative, cognitive universal actions:

the ability of the student to accept and maintain the learning goal and objectives; to independently transform a practical task into a cognitive one, the ability to plan one's own activity in accordance with the task and the conditions for its implementation and to look for means of its implementation; the ability to control and evaluate one's actions, to make adjustments to their implementation based on the assessment and taking into account the nature of errors, to show initiative and independence in learning;

ability to carry out information search, collection and selection of essential information from various information sources;

ability to use symbolic means to create models of the studied objects and processes, schemes for solving educational, cognitive and practical problems;

ability to perform logical operations comparison, analysis, generalization, classification according to generic characteristics, to the establishment of analogies, attribution to known concepts;

Ability to collaborate with teachers and peers when solving educational problems, take responsibility for the results of their actions.

Mainthe content of the assessment of meta-subject results at the level of primary general education is built around the ability to learn.

^ - assessment of students' achievement of the planned results in individual subjects:

system of fundamental elements of scientific knowledge - subject knowledge:

basic knowledge (fundamental elements of scientific knowledge - the conceptual apparatus (or "language") of educational subjects: key theories, ideas, concepts, facts, methods. This group includes a system of such knowledge, skills, educational activities that can be achieved by the vast majority of children.

knowledge supplementing, expanding or deepening the basic knowledge system

actions with subject matter (or subject actions ) :

substantive actions on the basis of cognitive UUD (use of sign-symbolic means; modeling; comparison, grouping and classification of objects; actions of analysis, synthesis and generalization, establishing connections, analogies; search, transformation, presentation and interpretation of information, reasoning), these actions are performed on different subjects with different objects and have a specific "subject" coloring.

concrete substantive actions (methods of motor activity mastered in the course of physical culture, or methods of processing materials, methods of modeling, drawing, methods of musical performance, etc.).

^ Evaluation of subject results is an assessment of the students' achievement of the planned results in individual subjects.

Evaluation of the achievement of these substantive results is carried out both during the current and intermediate assessment, and during the implementation of the final verification work.

^ Portfolio of achievements as a tool for assessing the dynamics of individual

educational achievement

^ Achievement portfolio is a collection of works and results that show the student’s efforts, progress and achievements in various areas (study, creativity, communication, health, useful work for people, etc.), as well as self-analysis by the student of his current achievements and shortcomings, allowing him to determine goals for their further development.

^ The final grade of the graduate and its use in the transition from the initial

to basic general education

For the final assessment at the level of primary general education, the results of which are used when deciding on the possibility (or impossibility) of continuing education at the next level, are submitted only subject and meta-subject results described in the "Graduate Learn" section of the planned primary education outcomes.

The subject of the final assessment is the ability of students to solve educational-cognitive and educational-practical tasks built on the material of the basic knowledge system using tools relevant to the content of educational subjects , including on the basis of metasubject actions. The ability to solve a different class of problems is the subject of various kinds of non-personalized (anonymous) surveys.

At the stage of primary general education, of particular importance for the continuation of education is the assimilation by students support system of knowledge in the Russian language and mathematics and mastery of the following metasubject actions:

· speech , among which arecomprehension reading and information processing skills ;

· communicative necessary for educational cooperation with the teacher and peers.

^ Materials of the accumulative assessment system (main sections of the program)

Results of final works

Passed

At least 50% of basic level tasks

Good or excellent

At least 65% of basic level tasks

At least 50% of the maximum score of advanced level assignments

Not fixed

Less than 50% of basic level tasks

The decision to transfer a student to the next level of general education is made simultaneously with the consideration and approval of the characteristics of the student.

All conclusions and assessments included in the characteristic are confirmed by the materials of the portfolio of achievements and other objective indicators.

^ I. Description of the results evaluation system

1st rule. What is valued.

The results are subject, meta-subject and personal.

results student Thisactions (skills) to use knowledge duringproblem solving (personal, metasubject, subject). Individual actions, above all successful ones, are subject toevaluation (verbal description), the solution of a full-fledged task - assessment andmark .

Rating − this is a verbal description of the results of actions (“well done”, “original”, “but here it’s inaccurate, because ...”).

Mark − this is a fixation of the evaluation result in the form of a sign on a 5-point scale.

You can evaluateany action student (especially successful): a good thought in a dialogue, a one-word answer to a reproductive question, etc.

Marked onlyfor solving a productive learning problem , during which the student comprehended the purpose and conditions of the task, carried out actions to find a solution (at least one skill for using knowledge), received and presented the result.

Additionally, at the end of the lesson, it is permissible to invite the whole class to determine which hypotheses turned out to be the most accurate, interesting, and helped to find a solution to a common problem. The authors of these hypothesescollective decision are encouraged: they are given an assessment and (or) an “excellent” mark (solving a problem of an increased level) is put on the skill by which the problem of the lesson was formulated.

^ Teacher results and their evaluation

results teacher (educational institution) - Thisdifference between student results (personal, meta-subject and subject) at the beginning of training (input diagnostics ) and at the end of training (output diagnostics ). The increase in results means that the teacher (school ) managed to create an educational environment that ensures the development of students. A negative result of the comparison means that it was not possible to create the conditions (educational environment) for the successful development of students' abilities.

To determine the increase, the input and output diagnostics of students are compared with the average all-Russian level.

^ 2nd rule. Who evaluates.

The teacher and student together determine the grade and mark.

On the lessonstudent himself evaluates its result of completing the task according to the "Self-Assessment Algorithm" and, if required, determines the mark when it shows the completed task.Teacher has the right toadjust grades and mark if it proves that the student overestimated or underestimated them.

After lessons for written assignments assessment and markdetermined by the teacher. Student has the right tochange this score and mark if it proves (using a self-assessment algorithm) that it is too high or too low.

In order to ensure adequate assessment, the student must learn to answer questions about the goals and results of his work, that is, master the self-assessment algorithm.

^ Self-assessment algorithm (questions answered by the student) :

1 . What should have been done in the task (task)? What was the goal, what should have been the result?

^ 2. Were you able to get a result? Found a solution, an answer?

3. Handled completely correctly or with an error? What, in what? To answer this question, the student needs:

Get the standard of the correct solution of the problem and compare your solution with it;

Be guided by the reaction of the teacher and the class to their own decision - whether any of his steps were corrected, whether his final answer was accepted.

4. Did you cope completely on your own or with the help of (who helped, in what way)?

Other questions are added to the specified self-assessment algorithm, including about the mark that the student puts himself. So starting from 2 3rd grade, after teaching children to use the requirements table (rule 4) and introducing success levels (rule 6), the following questions are added to this algorithm.

Continuation of the self-assessment algorithm:

5. What skill did you develop while doing the task?

6. What was the level of the task (task)?

Such problems have already been solved many times, did you need only “old”, already acquired knowledge?(Required level)

Did you encounter an unusual situation in this task (either you need already acquired knowledge in a new situation, or you need new knowledge on a topic that is only now being studied)?(Advanced level)

Such problems have never been learned to solve OR do you need knowledge that you did not learn in class?(Max level)

7. Determine the level of success at which you solved the problem.

8. Based on your level of success, determine the mark that you can give yourself.

^ Assessment in 1st grade (a feature of age - the student is not yet psychologically ready for an adequate assessment of his results, including the recognition of his mistakes)

1st step (in the first lessons). We define our mood.

2nd step (after 2-4 weeks). We learn to compare the goal and the result.

Children are invited to evaluate the content of their written work.

Having distributed notebooks with checked works, the teacher conducts a dialogue with the students, in which the main questions are:

- What was your assignment? Who can say what needed to be done at home? (Learning the 1st step of the self-assessment algorithm.)

- Look at your work - do you agree that the task has been completed? (Collective self-assessment learning the 2nd step of the self-assessment algorithm.)

3rd step (about a month later). We establish a procedure for evaluating our work.

4th step. We learn to admit our mistakes.

5th step. We learn to admit our failure.

The teacher helps students in the classroom in evaluating their actions, admitting mistakes. Then one of the children is invited to evaluate themselves in a situation where he at all failed to complete the task. In a diary or in a notebook, this (with the consent of the student) is indicated by an unfilled circle.

6th step. Use the skill of self-esteem.

^ Teaching the rule "Self-assessment" to students who completed the 1st grade

1) Grading order

1st step. Students are encouraged to learn to evaluate their own work. To do this, a conversation is held on the following questions: “You are already experienced students, tell me how best: so that you yourself learn to evaluate your results or that others always do it for you?”, “How do we start evaluating our work?”, “What will we do after that?" etc.

2nd step. Based on the results, in the form of a reference signal (pictures, keywords), a self-assessment algorithm is drawn up from 4 main and 2 additional points:

1) What was it exercise ?

2) Managed to get result ?

3) Completely right or with an error?

4) Completely on one's own or with help? (hereinafter - except for the 1st class):

5) By what signs do we distinguish grades and grades?

6) Which one you will put yourself mark ?

2) Timing to Develop Self-Esteem Skills

1st step. A lesson is selected in which only the MINIMUM of the content of the educational material will be used. Use the time allotted for all the material to develop students' self-assessment skills.

2nd step. When designing this lesson, choose a stage (checking what you have learned or learning something new) for using the self-assessment algorithm.

3rd step. Choose a simple task, after which one of the students will be asked to publicly evaluate their result according to the self-assessment algorithm (reference signal).

3) Procedure for self-assessment

1st step. Select the most prepared student for public self-assessment of the results of their work (ensuring the success of the procedure).

2nd step. After presenting the solution (oral answer, writing on the board, etc.), invite the student to evaluate the result of his work himself. To warn that at first the teacher will help in this: ask the student questions according to the self-assessment algorithm (pointing to the reference signal): “task?”, “result?”, “correctly?”, “himself?”. The student gives answers, the teacher corrects him, explains if there is an overestimation or underestimation. All other students at this moment observe how self-assessment occurs. Their attention is activated by the questions: “What step in evaluating the work have we already taken?” etc.

3rd step. In the following lessons, self-assessment according to the algorithm is carried out in turn by all students in the class (at least 1-2 episodes per lesson; at each lesson).

4th step. Gradually, instead of pronouncing the questions, the teacher suggests that the students themselves, looking at the reference signal, ask themselves these questions and answer them. In addition to dialogue, self-assessment can be carried out with a collective check of written assignments. A standard of the correct answer appears on the board, and each student evaluates his decision in his notebook.

5th step. When students start grading without looking at the cue, the teacher can remove it and use it only if someone is having trouble.

4) Time spent on self-assessment, subject to the formed skill

1st step. When all students have the ability to work according to the “Self-Assessment Algorithm”, the teacher, when planning a lesson, stops reducing its content to a minimum, including teaching material related to the maximum.

2nd step. The self-assessment algorithm collapses: after the teacher’s suggestion to evaluate his answer, the student’s phrase follows: “the goal was achieved, there were no mistakes”, or “I got the solution, but with the help of the class”, or “I completely solved the problem of the required level without errors, which corresponds to the mark “4 » well".

If the opinion of the student and the teacher is the same, the lesson can be continued.

If the opinion of the teacher differs from the opinion of the student (he overestimated or underestimated his mark), it is necessary to go through the algorithm and agree on the positions.

3rd step. After checking the written work, the student gets the right to reasonably challenge the assessment and mark of the teacher: after the student’s phrase “I do not agree with the mark”, the teacher invites him to explain his opinion using the self-assessment algorithm.

If the student is right, you need to thank him for helping the teacher find his mistake when checking.

If the student is wrong, the teacher needs to explain on the basis of which he made the appropriate decision, to agree on positions.

In the current practice of company valuation, income, cost and comparative approaches are used. At the same time, within the framework of each of the approaches, valuation methods are used to obtain a final conclusion about the value of the company. For example, the income approach traditionally uses the discounted cash flow method and the capitalization method. Within the framework of the cost approach - the method of net assets and the method of salvage value, etc. Each of these approaches and methods has its own positive and negative sides, which determine the feasibility of its application, and also focuses on certain characteristics of the business. For example, the income approach focuses on the profitability of the business, the cost approach focuses on the assets and encumbrances of the business, the comparative approach focuses on the valuation of an object by comparing transactions for similar objects, etc. cm. .

The practical use of valuation results in terms of the net assets method and methods based on a comparative approach, in its "pure" form, often does not reflect the real situation in the business of the company being valued. For example, using the net asset method when valuing capital-intensive or extractive companies does not always lead to a correct result. The use of comparative approach methods, in turn, is quite difficult due to the lack of adequate analogues in the Russian stock market, while the use of Western analogues is not entirely justified for comparing accounting standards, as well as the business environment of the economies of different countries. A certain kind of subjectivity in the calculations also introduces the weighting used to obtain the final value of the cost.

The question arises, is it possible to stop at one evaluation method that will allow you to get the most correct result? To answer this question, a wide range of existing valuation models that have developed in Western practice was analyzed, and a mechanism was developed for their possible adaptation to the real conditions of the Russian economy. The result of the work was the creation of a Model that allows analyzing the current activities of the Company, as well as assessing the value of the business based on the Cash Flow Methods (Capital Cash Flows (CCF), Equity Cash Flows (ECF), Free Cash Flows (FCF)); Methods based on the concept of residual income (Economic Value Added (EVA), Cash Value Added (CVA), Shareholder Value Added (SVA)), etc., as well as EBO and Black-Scoles models. At the same time, an assessment model was proposed and tested, based on the elements of the income and cost approach.

The practical implementation of the model includes three blocks: the "Initial data" block, the "Financial analysis" block, and the "Evaluation models" block.

The "Input data" block involves entering the information necessary for making calculations in the "Financial analysis" and "Valuation models" blocks. The resulting result is the construction of a forecast balance, fixing the results in terms of the financial analysis of the company being valued and obtaining the value of the company's business, determined using CCF, ECF, FCF, EVA, CVA, SVA, EBO, Black-Scoles, etc. The transition to the required form is carried out using the buttons, the results are presented in graphical and tabular form.

In the framework of this article, we will indicate the possibility and expediency of using methods widely used in Western practice in assessing the value of companies.

To understand the essence of the object of assessment, let's define the terminological apparatus. The object of assessment is the company's business, while a company is understood as one or more property complexes, expressed as independent legal entities, which include all types of property intended for the implementation of activities (businesses). Based on this definition, a company can be considered in two sections: from the point of view of the elements that form it (in fact, these are elements of the property complex in the form of assets and liabilities) and the elements that form its business (a set of business units). This interpretation allows us to single out one more level: if a company is a structurally complex business, then its forming elements (as well as the elements forming its business) are a set of property complexes. This division is necessary to identify elements that are not involved in the formation of the value of the company's business, the restructuring of which will provide an additional effect, expressed in the form of cash or another kind of asset. This statement has been tested as a result of practical work and has received practical justification and confirmation.

Initially, we consider the valuation of the company's business not only as a tool for making strategic decisions, but also as a tool for managing the value of both the company as a whole and the elements involved in its formation. We group the evaluation methods as follows:

1. Evaluation methods based on FCF, ECF, CCF.

2. Estimation methods based on NPV, APV, SNPV.

3. Evaluation methods based on EVA, MVA, CVA.

4. Method of valuation based on the combination of income and assets (EBO).

5. A valuation method based on the market value of assets, adjusted for encumbrances.

Valuation methods based on cash flows

The general formula for calculating the value of a business is the following formula:

Business Value = Sum of Present Values of Future Cash Flows + Market Value of Surplus Assets +/- Surplus/Deficiency of Own Working Capital.

The algorithm for determining the value of a company using the discounted cash flow method is as follows: determining the type of cash flow involved in the calculation, calculating the amount of cash flow, fixing the discount rate, calculating the current value of cash flows.

Cash flows can be expressed as CCF (Capital Cash Flow), EСF (Equity Cash Flow), FCF (Free Cash Flow). The choice of the type of cash flow is determined by the purpose and objective of the assessment.

The use of CCF (Capital Cash Flow) makes it possible to obtain an estimated value of the company's business, while as a result of calculations, the cash flow available to shareholders and creditors is fixed. CCF (Capital Cash Flow) = EBIT (Earnings before Interest and Taxes) + Depreciation - Capital Expenditures - Working Capital Increase - Actual Taxes funds and intangible assets, Capital Expenditures - capital investments, Working Capital Increase - increase in own working capital, Actual Taxes - taxes actually paid, calculated as (Tax Rate) x (EBIT - Interest).

The use of ECF (Equity Cash Flow) makes it possible to obtain an estimated value of the company's equity capital, while, as a result of calculations, the cash flow available to shareholders after payments on debt obligations is fixed. EСF (Equity Cash Flow) = EBIT (Earnings before Interest and Taxes) + Depreciation - Capital Expenditures - Working Capital Increase - Interest - Debt Payments + Debt Issues - Actual Taxes, where Debt Payments - payments in terms of long-term loans and debts, Debt Issues - receipts of new long-term loans and borrowings (essentially a change in long-term accounts payable).

The use of FCF (Free Cash Flow) makes it possible to obtain an estimated value of the company's business, while, like CCF (Capital Cash Flow), as a result of calculations, the cash flow available to shareholders and creditors of the company is fixed. FСF = EBIT (Earnings before Interest and Taxes) + Depreciation - Capital Expenditures - Working Capital Increase-Hypothetical Taxes , where Hypothetical Taxes are the taxes that the company would have paid had it not used the tax shield effect, and are calculated as (Tax Rate) x (Earnings before Interest and Taxes).

After receiving the amount of cash flows, a discount rate is calculated to bring the obtained values into the current value. At the same time, it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that the discount rate for ECF (Equity Cash Flow) and CCF (Capital Cash Flow) is calculated based on the CAPM (Capital - assets pricing model), but for CCF within CAPM, the Asset Beta coefficient is used, in Ultimately, the discount rate looks like R = Riskfree Rate + [(Asset Beta) x (Risk Premium)], where Riskfree Rate is the risk-free rate and Risk Premium is the market premium. For ECF within CAPM, the Equity (Unlevered) Beta ratio is used, Unlevered (Equity) Beta = Levered Beta/(1 + D/E Ratio), while R = Riskfree Rate + [(Equity Beta) ґ (Risk Premium)] . FCF implies using WACC (Weighted average cost of capital) = (Debt / Value) (1 - Tax Rate) ґ kD + (Equity/Value) x kE as the discount rate, where Debt/Value is the share of debt, kD -- cost of debt, Equity/Value -- share of equity, kE - cost of equity.

After obtaining the current values of cash flows in the forecast period and summing them up, adjustments are made for the amount of excess assets and surplus/deficit of own working capital.

Let's give a practical example of using the discounted cash flow method.

Initial data: Revenue (Sales), $2,500,000, Unlevered Beta 1.00, Rf (Riskfree Rate) 12.00%, Rm-Rf (Risk Premium) 8.00%, Share of Debt (Debt Ratio) 40.00% , Depreciation $500, Change in Working Capital $0, Capital Expenditures $500, EBIT Rate (%) 20.00%, Tax Rate 30.00%, Amount Payable percent - $90,517. To simplify the calculations, it is assumed that the company receives constant cash flows over an infinite period, there are no excess assets, there is no deficit / surplus of own working capital.

Let us denote the formula calculation of cash flows:

Estimation methods based on NPV, APV, SNPV

The selection of a group of these methods was not carried out by us by chance. If a company is a collection of property complexes, each of them can be regarded as a kind of investment project. Accordingly, when conducting a business valuation (especially if the concept of “strategic investment” arises), valuation methods based on NPV, APV, SNPV acquire the greatest importance. Let's take a look at each of these methods.

NPV (Net Present Value) -- Net Present Value

When conducting an assessment using the NPV indicator, it is possible to use NPV calculation options based on investments “dispersed over time” and investments of a “one-time” nature.

To assess the value of a business, taking into account investments "dispersed" over time, the following formula can be used:

(CF)t -- cash flow in year t, taking into account the initial investment (the amount of cash flow, depending on the task and objectives of the assessment, is defined as CCF, ECF or FCF, while in practical calculations, as a rule, preference is given to FCF), then the cash flow of the first year is adjusted by the value of the initial investment Co;

r -- discount rate for the selected type of cash flow;

(C0)t -- initial investment (original capital) in year t, counting from the start date of investment.

This calculation method, in addition to company valuation, can also be used when conducting valuation work to evaluate mergers and acquisitions, as well as for the case when the expected payment for "entering the business" is "dispersed" in time. This method is of particular relevance in terms of assessing companies that require significant investments to maintain fixed assets in working condition (for example, electricity, transport, etc.).

To assess the value of a business, taking into account one-time investments, the formula takes a simpler form:

r -- discount rate for the selected type of cash flow

C0 -- one-time investment.

This method of calculation can be used when carrying out appraisal work in terms of mergers and acquisitions for the case when the expected payment for "entering the business" is of a one-time nature.

APV (Adjusted Present Value) -- Adjusted Present Value

The method is more theoretical than NPV and involves the use of the "tax shield" element in the calculations. A "tax shield" refers to a company's costs that are deductible from taxable income and that "protect" (serving as a kind of shield) an equivalent amount of taxable income by reducing the amount of taxable income.

APV business value = NPV + “tax shield” value - any costs from the placement of shares1

The second calculation option does not provide for adjustments for the costs associated with the placement of shares, and was proposed in the work of R. Rubak, see.

SNPV (Strategic Net Present Value) - Strategic Net Present Value

The value of a company can exceed the market value of all its projects if there is a possibility of making decisions with a positive NPV. This “economic value” is estimated by the Black-Scholes Model (OPM). The adjustment of the NPV indicator for the total premium of real options, in particular, was voiced by the participants of the Conference in terms of real options (see ), as well as this moment was indicated in the work of Copeland, Koller and Murrin (see ).

Strategic Net Present Value (SNPV) is the sum of two components: Net Present Value (NPV) and Total Real Options Premium (Pr). At the same time, real options represent the amount by which the project is underestimated.

SNPV = NPV + Pr.

Evaluation methods based on EVA, MVA, CVa.

EVA (Economic Value Added) - added value

EVA (Economic Value Added) is based on the concept of residual income proposed by Alfred Marshall. Due to the actualization by investors of issues related to the maximization of income for shareholders, the concept of residual value has become widespread. The merit in this matter belongs to Stern Stewart, who developed and actively offered the EVA model in the consulting services market.

According to the EVA concept, the value of a company is its book value plus the present value of future EVAs. These strict relationships between EVA and a company's market value suggest that EVA determines the market value of a stock. The correlation between EVA and market value has been studied with some results.

Let us dwell in more detail on the analysis of the main points of this concept. What is the basis of EVA? It is obvious that the greatest increase in the value of any company is primarily due to its investment activity, which can be realized both at the expense of its own and borrowed sources. The basic idea behind using EVA is that shareholders should receive a rate of return for the risk they take. In other words, equity capital must earn at least the same rate of return as similar investment exposures in the capital markets. If this moment does not occur, then there is no real profit and shareholders do not see the benefits from the company's operating activities. On the other hand, if EVA is equal to zero, this is a definite achievement, since the shareholders actually received a rate of return that compensated for the risk.

A positive EVA value characterizes the efficient use of capital; if we take a macroeconomic scale, it becomes obvious that the productivity of capital is the factor that has the greatest impact on the economy and, as a result, on GDP growth. Any economy is characterized by a certain "reserve" of capital, which leads to the emergence of a new GDP. The more productive the capital, the greater the GDP we have. Therefore, achieving the highest possible positive EVA is not only a positive factor for shareholders in terms of company value management, but also for the entire economy and is important for each specific individual in a broader perspective. In practice, this moment characterizes the possibilities of the most effective redistribution of capital from one industry to another, which allows the industry to develop and receive additional income.

Firm Value = Capital Invested in Assets in Place + Current PV of EVA from Assets in Place + Sum of PV of EVA from new projects ).

EVA calculation options:

1) EVA = NOPAT - COST OF CAPITAL x CAPITAL employed.

2) EVA = (RATE OF RETURN - COST OF CAPITAL) x CAPITAL.

1. Rate of return = NOPAT/Capital.

2. Capital = Total balance sheet minus non-interest bearing debt in the beginning of the year.

3. Cost of capital (WACC) = Cost of Equity x Proportion of equity from capital + Cost of debt x Proportion of debt from capital x (1-tax rate) (see WACC calculation for FCF cash flow).

It must be taken into account that the simplicity of calculating the EVA indicator is only an apparent phenomenon. The developer of this model (Stewart G. Bennett) provides a list of possible amendments and adjustments. The most significant adjustments include the following: PV Operating Leases, Goodwill Depretiation, Capitalized R&D, etc.

As part of management, the company's value EVA is used in the preparation of the capital budget, in evaluating the performance of departments or the company as a whole, in developing an optimal and fair system of bonuses for management. The advantages of applying this concept in the framework of company value management are associated with an adequate and easy determination, using this indicator, of the degree to which a subdivision, firm or individual project has achieved the goal of increasing market value.

Thus, the value added model (EVA):

It is a tool for measuring the "surplus" value created by investments and an indicator of the quality of management decisions, while a constant positive value of this indicator indicates an increase in the company's value, while a negative value indicates its decrease;

· based on the cost of capital, as a weighted average of various types of financial instruments used to finance investments;

· allows you to determine the value of the company, and also allows you to evaluate the effectiveness of individual divisions of the company (individual property complexes).

In more detail, issues related to the use of this model are covered in the following works: see.

MVA (Market Value Added)

It is a special case of EVA. Calculated using the formula: MVA = Market Value of Equity + Market Value of Debt - Total Installed Capital x (Total Invested or Total Adjusted Capital).

The relationship between MVA and EVA indicators is defined as follows:

Fig.4.

CVA (Cash Value Added) - cash value added

This model is a kind of "prototype" of EVA. In practice, it is also called Residual Cash Flow (RCF). Calculation options for this indicator are presented as follows: CVA = Sales x ((Sales - Cost)/Sales - Working Capital Movement/Sales - Non Strategical Investment/Sales) - OCFD/Sales (see).

In the current practice of financial management, the model is simplified and looks like this: RCF (CVA) = AOCF - WACC x TA, where: AOCF (Adjusted Operating Cash Flows) - adjusted operating cash flow; WACC - weighted average cost of capital; TA - total adjusted assets.

Combination of income and assets (EBO) valuation method

The Ohlson EBO model (Edwards-Bell-Ohlson valuation model) combines elements of the income and cost approach, while the greatest weight in obtaining the final value falls on the cost approach in terms of fixing the current value of net assets.

The company's value is expressed through the discounted flow of "excess" - income (deviations of profit from the "normal", ie industry average value) and the current value of its net assets. It should be noted that the logic of calculating the Olson model is close to the concept of economic value added.

The value of the company within the Model is fixed as follows:

Pt -- the market value of the company at time t;

bt is the value of the company's net assets at time t;

bt-1 -- the value of the company's net assets at time t-1 (for the previous period);

dt -- "generalized dividends"

r -- discount rate

vt -- contribution of other factors to profit

E -- future profit (forecast)

Xt -- current profit

w - the weight of the impact of profit for the previous period

g -- other information influence weight

Information dynamics parameters u, g are positive values and should have a value of no more than 1. The factors influencing these indicators are the economic situation of the company and its accounting policy. The definition of the magnitude of these parameters is given in the work of Hand J. And Landsman, see.

The authors analyzed financial statements for a set of companies whose shares are listed on the American stock market (NYSE, AMEX, NASDAQ) for the period from 1974 to 1996. The analysis resulted in the following parameter values: u = 0.61, g = 0.45 for companies that pay dividends, and u = 0.46, g = 0.34 for companies that do not pay dividends. Obviously, the direct use of the values of these coefficients for Russian companies with a different economic environment will not lead to reliable and accurate results. In this connection, studies are being carried out to determine the parameters of information dynamics, but objective data have not yet been received.

Nevertheless, the importance of this model should be emphasized due to the fact that the model gives an idea of what part of the company's market value is expressed in its real assets, and what part is intangible "goodwill", which allows you to more accurately represent the degree of riskiness of investing in one or another company.

Here is an illustrative example of calculation within the Valuation Model:

Other valuation models (RIM)

To complete the review of modern valuation techniques, it is necessary to touch on one more issue related to the existence of Models based on accounting data.

These Models include the development of the Residual Income Model (RIM), proposed by Charles Lee (see).

Firm Value t = Capital t + PV (all future wealth creating activities) = Capital t + PV (all future "residual income" (RI)).

RI -- difference between earnings for the period and its cost-of-capital, expressed in $.

RI = Earnings t - R x Capital t-1.

R = cost-of-capital, expressed as a rate-of-return, assuming a flat term structure.

At present, there is no adaptation of this model to Russian conditions in valuation practice. Therefore, it is very difficult to make a conclusion about the validity and applicability of this model, without making adjustments that take into account the specifics of the domestic accounting system, compared to the Western one.

Valuation method based on the market value of assets adjusted for encumbrances

It seems very difficult to judge which of the indicators listed in this article can serve as the most correct basis for calculating the company's value.

In the works of Western authors, there are a significant number of publications related to highlighting the advantages and disadvantages of EVA, MVA, CVA, etc. We consider it necessary to note that, in fact, all these indicators are based on NPV. At the same time, each of them contains a certain kind of "assumptions" that greatly simplify the calculation and affect the resulting value of the company's value. Nevertheless, it is obvious that the NPV indicator can answer the question about the value of a business, taking into account its expected profitability, but does not answer the question of what this profitability is formed by and what risks the new owner of the company may face. This moment necessitated the development of a model based on NPV, taking into account the advantages of the above models and allowing you to get the most "real" value of the company, understandable to both the buyer and the seller.

Particular attention should be paid to the definition voiced by Y. Breghen and L. Gapensky: "the market value of a business, in fact, is based on the market value of assets, which is determined by the ability of assets to generate income." Based on the previously outlined approach to interpreting the essence of the company and the value indicator as a characterizing indicator, it should be noted that assets and liabilities are the basic elements that form its value, while the value of the business is based on assets, the value of which is based on their profitability.

We consider it conditional and necessary to use the following model to assess the value of the company's business:

Company Value = Market Value of NPV Assets of Operating Assets + Market Value of Surplus Assets +/- Working Capital Surplus / Shortage of Working Capital + Market Value of Financial Assets

The validity of the application of this Model was revealed as a result of practical work and confirmed by statistical studies.

Below is a calculation table containing the results of the company's valuation using the methods discussed in this article.

Thus, based on the above, the following conclusions can be drawn:

practical use of the NPV, APV, SNPV methods in the course of appraisal work is possible in terms of analyzing transactions related to mergers or acquisitions, to analyze the feasibility of making a “strategic investment” necessary for the development of a particular property complex that is part of the company, etc. P.

The basis of all valuation models is the traditional NPV indicator, the specification of which made it possible to show the validity of using a modified approach to valuation, which includes elements of an income and cost approach, the calculation of the company's business value is carried out according to the formula:

Company Value = Market Value of Assets NPV Operating Assets + Market Value of Surplus Assets +/- Working Capital Surplus / Working Capital Deficit + Market Value of Financial Assets

Market value of Long-term financial investments

The market value of the company's rights of claim (accounts receivable) that can be converted into financial investments or cash

Market value of liabilities that could result in loss of control of the business

The market value of short-term liabilities that could result in the loss of control of the business

The market value of long-term liabilities that could result in the loss of control of the business.